ISSN: 1579-9794

Hikma 20 (2) (2021), 177 - 202

From mommet to ugly: An analysis of the linguistic duality

and idiolect of Tess Durbeyfield in the Spanish translations

of Tess of the d’Urbervilles

De mommet a ugly. Análisis de la dualidad lingüística e

idiolecto de Tess Durbeyfield en las traducciones al

castellano de Tess of the d’Urbervilles

JULIA LÓPEZ-NARVÁEZ

jlnarvaez@ucm.es

Universidad Complutense de Madrid

Fecha de recepción: 27/04/2021

Fecha de aceptación: 16/09/2021

Abstract: The current study aims at critically exploring the resulting identity

of Tess of the d’Urbervilles’ main character, Tess Durbeyfield, in the Spanish

translations through the analysis of her linguistic variation. Throughout the

novel, Tess is characterised by a unique duality in linguistic variation, which

shapes her identity. She is capable of using both dialectal and non-dialectal

marks, which differentiates her from the rest of the novel’s characters. To

reach thus the goal of this research, that is, to verify whether Tess

Durbeyfield’s multifaceted identity is maintained in the Spanish translations,

it is essential to analyse the linguistic variation of the novel’s heroine in the

target texts. For the project, the three Spanish translations that exist of the

novel have been analysed (carried out in 1924, 1994 and 2017).

In order to reach this aforementioned objective, the strategies carried out by

the different translators regarding linguistic variation will be analysed,

focusing on the possible identity distortion that these decisions may entail in

the heroine’s characterisation. In order to observe Tess Durbeyfield’s idiolect

and linguistic variation, all dialogues from the novel and its corresponding

translations have been analysed and classified. In the project, through

selected dialogues, it will be observed whether the translation strategies

regarding the heroine’s linguistic variation imply a reconfiguration of Tess’s

identity in the target texts.

Keywords: Linguistic variation, Idiolect, Literary identity, Tess of the

d’Urbervilles, Translation.

Resumen: El presente estudio tiene como objetivo explorar críticamente la

identidad resultante de la protagonista de Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Tess

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Hikma 20 (2) (2021), 177 - 202

Durbeyfield, a través del análisis de las traducciones castellanas de su

variación lingüística. A lo largo de la novela, Tess es caracterizada por una

dualidad lingüística única, la cual moldea su identidad. Es capaz de emplear

tanto marcas dialectales como no dialectales, lo que la diferencia del resto

de personajes de la novela. Por tanto, para alcanzar el objetivo de dicho

estudio, es decir, verificar si la identidad poliédrica de Tess Durbeyfield se

conserva en las traducciones castellanas, es esencial analizar la variación

lingüística de la heroína en los textos meta. Para ello, en el presente trabajo

se han empleado las tres traducciones que existen de la novela al

castellano (realizadas en 1924, 1994 y 2017).

Para conseguir el objetivo del proyecto, se analizarán las estrategias

empleadas por los diferentes traductores con respecto a la variación

lingüística, prestando gran atención a la posible deformación identitaria que

dichas decisiones pueden producir en la caracterización de la protagonista.

Para observar el idiolecto y la variación lingüística de Tess Durbeyfield, se

han analizado y clasificado todos los diálogos de la novela y sus

correspondientes traducciones. En el presente proyecto, a través de los

diálogos seleccionados, se podrá observar si las estrategias traductológicas

con respecto a la variación lingüística de Tess implican una reconfiguración

de la identidad de la protagonista en el texto meta.

Palabras clave: Variación lingüística, Idiolecto, Identidad literaria, Tess of

the d’Urbervilles, Traducción.

INTRODUCTION

The translation of linguistic variation is perhaps one of the biggest

challenges a translator may face. Often novels are read, where a character

is identified by their dialectal speech, by a specific sociolect or by the

repetitive use of a syntactical structure. Nevertheless, when contrasting

original texts with their translations, there seems to be a tendency of omitting

these identity traits in the target texts. In many translations, when a

character has a very strong idiolect, there is a tendency towards neutralising

their linguistic variation and thus, risking the distortion of the character’s

construction and identity.

Linguistic variation plays a crucial role in literature, as it has the power

of distinguishing a character and making them unique. It is a resource quite

commonly used in original texts, since it provides the narrative with very well

differentiated characters. Given the importance of linguistic variation in

character construction, it should be as essential in translated texts, since if

omitted, this particular and inalienable characterisation will be altered.

Unfortunately, the translational tradition says otherwise. In literary

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translation, there seems to be a tendency towards neutralisation, causing a

possible transformation in the story and the character’s identity.

The current study aims at analysing the three Spanish translations of

Tess of the d’Urbervilles (Thomas Hardy, 1891), observing how the linguistic

variation has been translated and verifying if the identity of the main heroine,

through her idiolect, is maintained in the target text

1. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND: LINGUISTIC VARIATION AND IDIOLECT

Tello Fons (2012, p. 133) defines linguistic variation as the functional

varieties of language that have to do with both the speaker and the context

in which this variety is used. Linguistic variation is commonly classified into

use-related variation (register) and user-related (dialect) (Alsina, 2020, p.

147). Even though there are different classifications regarding linguistic

variation, one of the most recurring one is the classification proposed by

Halliday, McIntosh and Strevens in 1964 and accepted by experts such as

Hatim and Mason (1995), Hurtado Albir (2001), Tello Fons (2011), Rica

Peromingo and Braga Riera (2015). This classification divides linguistic

variation into geographic dialect, temporal dialect, social dialect, standard

dialect and idiolect.

• Geographic dialect corresponds to linguistic variations related

to geographic variety. These dialects often entail cultural,

social and ideological connotations.

• Temporal dialect is related to the changes which take place

throughout time. In this dialect (and in most of them)

phonetics is a very important characteristic that should be

taken into account (Rica Peromingo and Braga Riera, 2015, p.

125).

• Social dialect or sociolect includes the language variations

according to the social class to which the speaker belongs

(Hurtado Albir, 2001, pp. 578-579).

• Standard dialect is usually the variety considered as correct,

predominating in teaching and media (Rica Peromingo and

Braga Riera, 2015, p. 132). Landers (2001, p. 116) points out

that it «is merely the dialect spoken by a privileged segment of

society that includes its political leaders, its opinion-makers,

and its literati».

• Idiolect has to do with the particular characteristics of the

speaker, such as recurring structures, distinguished

pronunciation or a determined syntax (Hatim and Mason,

1995, p. 61). Rica Peromingo and Braga Riera (2015, p. 132)

define idiolect as «uso particular y personal que un hablante

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hace de su lengua: la voz, los sonidos identificables en el

habla de esa persona, las construcciones sintácticas

utilizadas con mayor o menor frecuencia, la recurrencia de

determinadas palabras o expresiones, etc.».

All these linguistic variations, as has been said above, are key in

identity configuration, as they serve to «contribute to the depiction of

characters» (Alsina, 2020, p.147). Regarding idiolect, this linguistic variation

will be the most relevant in the present study, as it is related to the

characterisation of a text or a character. As Alsina (2020, p. 147) points out,

idiolect is «the individual way each person (or character, in the case of

fiction) uses language». Therefore, in this study the term idiolect will be used

in order to refer to the user’s linguistic characteristics that shape their

identity. According to Costa (2006, p. 84) «el idiolecto […] es lo que

singulariza un texto y ese idiolecto está formado, en distintas proporciones,

de la lengua general […], su manifestación espacial, el dialecto, su cara

social, el sociolecto».

It can be said, then, that idiolect is essential for the literary character’s

identitary configuration. It is likewise important in translation, as it allows

identify a character through their lexis, linking words or specific syntax (Rica

Peromingo and Braga Riera, 2015, p. 133). Idiolect highlights the characters’

identity, as it shows «their own distinct and individual version of the

language they speak and write, […] and the assumption that his idiolect will

manifest itself through distinctive and idiosyncratic choices in texts»

(Coulthard, 2004, p. 431). As has been said, linguistic variation in literature

is a fundamental component in identity construction. In this construction,

idiolect plays a crucial role as it is an important aspect of the user that clearly

shows the overlapping of all varieties (Hatim and Mason, 1995, p. 61).

These characteristics will be key to understand Tess Durbeyfield, whose

identity revolves around her changing linguistic variation.

2. THE TRANSLATION OF LINGUISTIC VARIATION

The translation of linguistic variation is one of the biggest problems in

translation studies. The presence of different dialects in a novel is never

fortuitous, but with a clear objective. When an author gives their character a

dialect, they are differentiating this character from the rest (Tello Fons, 2011,

pp. 141-145). Therefore, if the presence of a dialect is always intentional, the

translator should take into account the linguistic nuances of the text and

highlight the idiolectal and dialectal elements of the character, so the target

reader can identify it (Hurtado Albir, 2001, p. 593). Regarding this issue,

several interesting theories have been proposed. However, even though

there is a wide variety of strategies for the translation of linguistic variation, it

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is merely present in translated literature (Albaladejo, 2012, p. 7). Azevedo

defends that

a translation can only be considered successful to the extent that it

manages to capture the nuances inherent in the linguistic diversity

of the original, in order to preserve, even if in a modified fashion,

the manifestation of individual voices, each endowed with a

significance of its own (Azevedo, 1998, p. 42).

There is no panacea for dialectal translation. In fact, as Leppihalme (2000, p.

267) points out, the translation of linguistic variation entails the risk of

reducing the number of readers, as the great majority does not value the

linguistic individuality.

Some of the experts which have worked on this field of dialectal

translation are Azevedo (1998), Rabadán (1991), Tello Fons (2011), Catford

(1965), Hatim and Mason (1995 and 2005), Mayoral Asensio (1990),

Berezowski (1997), Hurtado Albir (2001), Rica Peromingo and Braga Riera

(2015), Albaladejo (2012), among others. Regarding the translational

strategies that can be used when translating linguistic variation these are

innumerable. Azevedo (1998, p. 42) proposes a literary dialect that emulates

the linguistic variation of the text. It is a strategy with great potential to

generate a lack of familiarity, a lack of standardisation, which encourages

the reader to see the character and their speech. In addition, Mayoral

Asensio (1990, p. 67) defends that there are three approaches for translating

dialects: a) to use a dialect in the target language which corresponds with

the dialect in the source language; b) to use lexical, grammatical, and

syntactic elements in order to express the aforementioned dialect; or c) not

to translate the dialect. Sánchez (2009, p. 202) opts for similar strategies

and affirms that these are: a) to use a dialect from the target language, b) to

use the standard language, c) to add the description «he/she said with X

accent» or d) not to translate the original dialect. On the other hand,

Albaladejo (2012, p. 20) defends that there are two major strategies:

neutralisation (omitting the original dialect) or recreation (recreating the

marked text).

Berezowski (1997, pp. 51-81) proposes the following classification of

strategies regarding the translation of dialects:

• Neutralisation: The substandard language is translated with

standard language in the target text.

• Lexicalisation: Dialects in the source text are translated only

with lexical elements.

• Partial translation: With this strategy, some of the words of the

source text are not translated in the target text.

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• Transliteration: This strategy focuses on replacing

graphological forms in the source language with phonologic

ones in the target language.

• Speech defect: Strategy which highlights «the defects in

speakers’ phonology as a vehicle of transferring the social

deixis of the original» (Berezowski, 1997, p. 62).

• Relativisation: The dialect of the source text is translated with

forms of address in the target text.

• Pidginisation: It mainly focuses on the morphological and

syntactical characteristics of dialects.

• Artificial variety: Strategy through which an artificial non-

standard language is created.

• Colloquialisation: The linguistic variation of the source text is

translated with colloquial elements.

• Rusticalisation: Dialects are translated with marks and terms

from the rural world.

Tello Fons (2011) proposes a wide selection of translational strategies

for linguistic variation. These strategies are the following (Tello Fons, 2011,

pp. 104-131):

Compensation: Some linguistic variations are translated into standard

language and some non-dialectal language are marked in the target text.

Hatim and Mason (2005, p. 96) define compensation as a «procedure for

dealing with any source text meaning […] which cannot be reproduce

directly in the target language».

• Neutralisation: The translation of linguistic variation into

standard language.

• Colloquial translation: This strategy entails the use of

colloquial language, through phonetic, grammatical or

syntactic elements.

• Violation of linguistic norm: Strategy with which

ungrammatical language is used in order to mark the

character’s language and differentiate it from the rest.

• Dialectal translation: The use of a dialect from the target

culture with equivalent social, ideological and political

characteristics.

As can be observed, there is no unanimity regarding the strategies

that should be utilised when translating linguistic variation. There is,

however, a recurring pattern among many experts. This pattern can be

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summarised into neutralisation, compensation, colloquial translation and

partial translation.

On the other hand, some authors have proposed strategies for the

different linguistic variations regarding the user:

• Regarding geographical dialects one can find many

discrepancies, from dialectal translation to neutralisation.

• Temporal dialect seems to be very difficult to translate. Rica

Peromingo and Braga Riera (2015, p. 216) propose three

strategies: a) to translate the archaic effect, b) to use the

contemporary language, or c) to use contemporary language,

but with some archaic flavouring.

• Sociolect can be translated when contexts and social

structures are similar in both systems (Rabadán, 1991, p.

115).

• Standard language: There seems to be unanimity among

experts, who defend that it should be translated with the

standard language of the target culture.

• Idiolect: Catford (1965, p. 86) claims that idiolect does not

have to be always translated, as the personal identity is not

always an important characteristic. This represents a

dangerous affirmation, as identity should always be taken into

account, or otherwise the character creation will be modified.

Hatim and Mason (1995) defend that idiolect must (and can)

be translated.

All these recommendations are merely general contributions. Each

translator will take individual decisions, which may not be shared with other

experts (Albaladejo, 2012, p. 10). As has been observed, the translation of

linguistic variation entails several problems. Dialect and idiolect are

challenging for translators, since it is rooted in time, space and in the source

culture. In fact, this difficulty is increased in cases where the language

variation has not an immediate equivalent in the target language (Azevedo,

1998, p. 32). Even though there are strategies to translate linguistic

variation, Albaladejo (2012, p. 20) affirms that the most extended practice in

translation is neutralisation, technique through which any substandard

aspect in the source text is omitted in the target text, where it is substituted

by standard language. Berezowski (1997, p. 89) defines neutralisation as the

most radical posture in the translation of linguistic variation, as the

connotations of the non-standard language are lost, failing to identify the

characters in specific social groups (Berezowski, 1997, p. 51). Tello Fons

(2011, p. 106) has a similar opinion and defends that if dialectal marks are

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not translated, some connotations and elements of the source text may be

irrecoverable. As Azevedo (1998, p. 42) points out, if an idiolect is omitted,

the character’s configuration will be reshaped. Albaladejo (2012, p. 20)

highlights the danger of neutralisation by affirming that this strategy inflicts

irrecoverable losses to the marked text. Hurtado Albir (2001, p. 593) claims

that if the presence of linguistic variation is never unintentional, the translator

has to be able to identify the dialectal and idiolectal marks and translate

them to the target text.

3. TESS OF THE D’URBERVILLES’ LITERARY CONTEXT

Tess of the d’Urbervilles, published in 1891, is considered one of the

most famous (and late) novels by Thomas Hardy. This novel is the work that

Hardy himself defined as «the beginning of the end of his career as a

novelist» (Meek, 2017, p. 51). And he was not mistaken. Hardy’s last novel,

Jude the Obscure, was published in 1895, four years after Tess’s publication

3.1. Thomas Hardy

Thomas Hardy (1840-1924) is perhaps one of the most interesting

writers from the second half of the nineteenth century England. This may be

due to his peculiar style, his ever-changing life or the mixed reception that

his controversial topics provoked among the public.

Regarding his style, there seems to be no unanimity. Perhaps the

reason as to why it is so difficult to classify Hardy into a literary movement is

related to the fact that Hardy’s narrative seems to belong to a transition

period between Victorian and modern era. Regarding Hardy’s style, Taylor

(2015, pp. 238-239) claims that it shares the skepticism of the modern time,

but at the same time it maintains Victorian aspects. When talking about the

novelist’s aesthetic, Alvarez affirms that

his extraordinary originality and that peculiar sense of his being—

despite the seemingly quaint rural customs which so concerned

him—a precursor of modernism. The blankness and emotional

dislocation he delineated so sharply in Tess in 1891 were to

become the characteristic note and preoccupation of twentieth-

century literature (Alvarez, 2012, p. 438).

Hardy was a writer who did not fit into any literary movement, a writer

who used his versatility to his advantage. He has one foot in the past and

other in the future and he serves as a link to Victorian era, while also moving

away from it by initiating tendencies of modern literature (Tello Fons, 2011,

p. 210).

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3.2. Wessex, more than a simple setting

Many are the elements that influenced Hardy’s professional trajectory,

from his childhood in a rural world, to his career as an architect and his

classical knowledge. Nevertheless, there is one element that can be

considered as the most identifying characteristics of Thomas Hardy’s novels:

the region of Wessex.

Until 1870, the term Wessex referred to the medieval region located in

the Southeast of Great Britain. However, ever since Hardy uncovered this

word, Wessex has become a literary where the novelist's characters live. In

fact, so identifiable was this region that Hardy was known as the author of

Wessex novels. Wessex is a semi-fictional region that serves as location for

the great majority of Hardy’s novels. Although it does not exist in real life, it

is based on a specific geographical location: Dorset, the county in which

Thomas Hardy was raised. Regarding this aspect, in the prefaces of Tess of

the d’Urbervilles and Far from the Madding Crowd, Hardy wrote:

In the present edition it may be well to state, in response to

inquiries from readers interested in landscape, pre-historic

antiquities, and especially old English architecture, that the

description of these backgrounds in this and its companion novels

has been done from the real. (cited in Gatrell, 1999, p. 30).

Nevertheless, Hardy did not only inferred a culture and location to his

novels, but also particular customs and language. Regarding the latter, of

great importance for the current study, the language of Wessex gathers the

dialect of Dorset and is rooted in the Anglo-Saxon language (Sorum, 2011,

p. 196). Chapman (1990, p. 45) affirms that the dialect of Wessex also

includes Latin, Greek and Romance terms. Hardy uses this fictional dialect

to differentiate the characters of his novels, to generate a bigger effect if

someone with standard pronunciation appears (Butler, 1999, p. 173). As will

be seen below, Tess Durbeyfield is characterised by a linguistic duality, as

she speaks both the language of Wessex and Standard English. This will be

an identifying feature for Tess, highlighting her in the novel, since no other

character possesses this duality.

A fundamental aspect for this analysis is the novel’s dialogues, as

they will help analyse Tess Durbeyfield’s idiolect. According to Chapman

(1990, pp. 125-128), through the dialogues of Tess of the d’Urbervilles, the

reader is immersed in the novel’s reality, where they meet the characters

and their circumstances. Through their interlocutions the reader is able to

grasp the character’s identity, their social situation and the changes they

suffer in their lives.

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With Wessex, Hardy created a whole culture, where he registered

customs and a specific language. For all this reasons, it cannot be said that

Wessex is simply a region where Hardy set his work. By imagining this

region, Hardy created an undying world, with its own characteristics which

make both the setting and its characters unique. Wessex is an essential

aspect in Hardy’s narrative for the current research, as it entails a world full

of habits, with a unique language, pronunciation and syntax which will shape

the character’s identities in Tess of the d’Urbervilles.

3.3. Tess of the d’Urbervilles

As happened with Hardy, Tess of the d’Urbervilles cannot be included

in a specific literary movement. Even though it is a late Victorian novel, its

descriptive elements and radical ideas anticipate modernism. According to

McEarthron (2005, p. 2), Tess’s story combines the structure of classical

tragedy with a fierce critic towards society and its double morality. Tomalin

(2007, p. 230) believes that Hardy was a more modernist than realist writer

who, through Tess Durbeyfield, subverts the social prejudice and stereotype

of the fallen women. These fallen women represented the immoral side of

society, they imposed a threat to England due to their lack of chastity and

purity. However, as will be shown below, Thomas Hardy, in the novel’s

subtitle, uses the term pure to describe Tess Durbeyfield, a character that he

knew was going to be considered a fallen woman by his readers. This open

attack to Victorian morality was, as one can imagine, not very well received,

and thus, was omitted in the first editions of the novel

Hardy, aware of the reactions that his subtitle could arise, still claimed

that «you will be surprised to hear that they alter my preface and omit the

second title, which is absolutely necessary to show its meaning» (cited in

Reilly, 2018, p. 33). For Hardy, the perpetuation of the subtitle was essential

for the understanding of the novel and the heroine’s identity.

Not only the publishers, but also the readers found the subtitle

offensive. Victorian society did not understand how Tess was pure, when her

sexual and criminal acts were evident. They did not understand how a fallen

woman, a societal stereotype that was condemned in Victorian time, was

considered a pure woman. As a response to this critics, Hardy wrote an

explanatory note before the publication of the novel:

I will just add that the story is set out in all sincerity of purpose, as

an attempt to give artistic form to a true sequence of things; and in

respect of the book’s opinions and sentiments, I would ask any too

genteel reader, who cannot endure to have said what everybody

nowadays thinks and feels, to remember a well-worn sentence of

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St. Jerome’s: If an offence come out of the truth, better is it that the

offence come that that the truth concealed (Hardy, 1991, p. IX).

However, negative the reception of Tess was, it is nowadays

considered one of the greatest works by Thomas Hardy. Its popularity

comes from the empathetic, subtle and deep uncover of Tess’s suffering, a

pure woman who is ill-treated by society. Perhaps the reasons of the

misunderstanding of both Hardy and Tess has to do with the fact that neither

of them belong to the time in which they were born. Bloom (2010, p. 12)

follows this theory and affirms that «Hardy’s novel [Tess] has proved to be

prophetic of a sensibility by no means fully emergent in 1891».

4. METHODOLOGY

Tess of the d’Urbervilles is a novel in which, as said before, dialogues

are crucial. That is why for the present study, dialogues and interventions

have been the main focus for analysing the linguistic variation in Tess

Durbeyfield. The dialogues’ analysis has been made in a two-stage process.

The first phase focused on analysing the original novel, whereas the second

stage was related to the dialogue’s selection of the three translations.

The original novel, with an extension of 314 pages

, has 2298 quotes.

The subtraction of all the novel’s original dialogues has been carried out with

two different processes. First, the web application of CLiC has been used in

order to differentiate all the quotes of the novel from the rest of the narration.

Afterwards, a manual selection has been needed in order to classify the

dialogues (usually composed by several quotes) into the different characters

(Tess, Alec, Angel, Tess's family, Tess’s friends and society). Once all

interventions have been grouped into characters or characters’ groups, only

those in which Tess Durbeyfield is a participant have been selected. In total,

the heroine appears in 86 dialogues.

After having finished the first stage of the dialogues’ subtraction, it

was necessary to analyse all three translated versions. In this last phase, the

methodology used has been mainly a manual selection of the already

classified dialogues, both in the digital and physical formats. Due to the

extension of the current study, a second round of dialogue selection was

needed, in which only the most relevant ones have been included. These

selected dialogues show the linguistic variation and the duality in Tess

Durbeyfield’s idiolect, as will be seen below.

Data from Critical Norton edition.

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5. ANALYSIS: TESS DURBEYFIELD’S LINGUISTIC VARIATION AND ITS TRANSLATION

INTO SPANISH

For this analysis, the original text and the three Spanish translations of

Tess of the d’Urbervilles will be analysed. The original text that will be

utilised was published by Norton Critical Edition in 1991. Regarding the

translated versions, the first translation, which dates back to 1924, was

carried out by Manuel Ortega y Gasset. For this research a later reprint will

be used, published in 1942 by the publisher Nausica. The second translation

of Tess was translated by Javier Franco Aixelá in 1994 and published by

Temas de Hoy. Finally, the last translation of the novel was published in

2017 by Alba editorial and translated by Catalina Martínez Muñoz.

6. TESS OF THE D’URBERVILLES’ SUBTITLE

Tess Durbeyfield is the pillar of the novel, whose identity can be

traced from her linguistic variation and the changes it suffers throughout the

story. Due to the fact that Tess Durbeyfield is the heart of the story, the

subtitle that Hardy gave the Victorian novel is essential to understand the

main heroine’s characterisation. The title of the novel is accompanied by the

subtitle «A pure woman faithfully presented by Thomas Hardy». With the

adjective pure Hardy identifies Tess as a woman free of guilt, who despite all

events that take place in her life, remains pure. The subtitle does not blame

the raped, the murder, but the rapist, the aggressor and those who

participated in Tess’s tragedy.

Figure 1. The translation of the subtitle

Source: The authors

Nevertheless, as can be observed in fig. 1, in the translations from

1942 and 1994 the subtitle does not appear, nor there is a reference of this

key quality of Tess. With this suppression, Tess’s story is altered, a pure

woman who lives in a pure Wessex and where they both are corrupted and

mistreated by the world (Alvarez, 2012, p. 478).

HARDY, 1991

ORTEGA Y

GASSET, 1942

FRANCO AIXELÁ,

1994

MARTÍNEZ

MUÑOZ, 2017

A pure woman

faithfully

presented by

Thomas Hardy

Una mujer pura

fielmente

presentada por

Thomas Hardy

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7. FROM TESS DURBEYFIELD TO TESS D’URBERVILLE

Tess Durbeyfield is with no doubt the most complex character in the

novel. One of the most important aspects in Tess’s configuration, pertinent

for this research, is her duality, both appellative and linguistic. According to

Ragussis (1986, pp. 141-142) the dual names of the novel

(Blackmore/Blackmoor or Durbeyfield/d’Urberville) indicate the double nature

of Tess, who is at the same time an aristocrat and a dairywoman. On the

other hand, Tess has a linguistic duality, as, depending on the context, she

uses the Wessex rural dialect or Standard English

. Tess’s duality become

evident when compared with her mother’s (dialogue 1) and brother’s

(dialogue. 2) linguistic variations. This duality can also be observed from

dialogues 1 to 10.

In relation to Tess’s evolution throughout the novel, Shires (1999, p.

154-155) affirms that she suffers a very significant change, since «the novel

takes her from being a she, to a collection of aspects, to an it, and ultimately

to a nothingness». This evolution will affect Tess’s idiolect, which will be

shaped according to the circumstances and experiences of the heroine. As

the novel progresses and Tess’s terrible end is predicted, her idiolect will be

transformed, altered by the events and characters that shape Tess’s life (as

can be observed in dialogues 11, 12 and 13).

7.1. Linguistic difference between Tess and her mother

1(a)

“Had it anything to do with father’s making such a mommet of himself

in thik carriage this afternoon?—Why did ’er?” (Hardy, p. 12)

1 (b)

—¿Tiene algo que ver con eso que ha hecho padre de pasearse esta

tarde en coche? (Ortega y Gasset, p. 24)

1(c)

—¿Tiene algo que ver con padre haciendo el payaso en aquel

carruaje esta tarde? ¿Cómo se le ha podido ocurrir? (Franco Aixelá, p. 38)

1 (d)

It should be noted that Tess’s linguistic duality suffered several changes in the novel. At first, in

the 1891 edition, it is said that Tess only uses the dialect “when excited by joy, surprise, or grief

(Hardy, [1891] 2012, p. 20). However, this description was eliminated and replaced by «Tess]

spoke two languages; the dialect at home, more or less; ordinary English abroad and to persons

of quality» (Hardy, [1891] 1991, p. 12).

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—¿Tiene algo que ver con la que ha armado padre esta tarde en el

coche? ¿Por qué ha hecho eso? (Martínez Muñoz, p. 37)

In this dialogue, present at the beginning of the novel, Tess’s dialect

can be very clearly observed. In relation to the phonetic aspects, the

dialectal determiner thik (that) and the pronoun ‘er (he) can be found. The

three translations neutralise the substandard language, omitting Tess’s

Wessex dialect. The main character is able to use both standard and

dialectal language, something that makes her stand out in the novel. If in

translation this feature is omitted, Tess’s identity will be reshaped in the

target texts.

On the other hand, in relation to the lexical aspects, the term

mommet (effigy, puppet, scarecrow) should be highlighted. Martínez Muñoz

uses a colloquialism in order to compensate the dialectal mark and the

relaxed speech of Tess when she is surrounded by family members. On the

contrary, Ortega y Gasset neutralises the dialectal structure by using the

structure eso que ha hecho. On the other hand, Franco Aixelá uses a term

that, although it is considered standard (payaso), has a powerful semantic

meaning, showing the proud nature of Tess.

7.2. Linguistic difference between Tess and her brother

2 (a)

“That our great relation will help ‘ee to marry a gentleman.”

“I? Our great relation? (Hardy, p. 20)

2 (b)

—Claro, mujer. Porque nuestros parientes ricos te buscarán un novio

rico como ellos.

—¿Nuestros parientes ricos? (Ortega y Gasset, pp. 36-37)

2 (c)

—Sí, de que nuestra parienta importante te ayude a casarte con un

caballero.

—¿Yo? ¿Nuestra pariente importante? (Franco Aixelá, p. 50)

2 (d)

—Que esa pariente noble te ayude a casarte con un caballero.

—¿Yo? ¿Esa pariente noble? (Martínez Muñoz, p. 49)

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This dialogue, held between Tess and her brother Abraham, shows

once again Tess’s linguistic duality. Before analysing the identitary aspects,

it should be noted that Tess professes a maternal feeling towards their

siblings, reflected in the way she expresses herself, using a less marked

dialect, since she tries to speak in a more corrected way

In the original text, the phonetic element ‘ee (you) can be

highlighted. As in the previous example, the general strategy is

neutralisation, with which the dialectal mark is omitted. However, regarding

the lexical aspects, the strategy of compensation can be observed in

Franco Aixelá’s translation. The translator does not use any dialectal mark

for the translation of ‘ee; he opts, however, for a substandard structure for

the translation of great relation. In order to reflect the idiolectal differences

between siblings, Franco Aixelá uses the strategy of violation of linguistic

norm. This way, the translator uses the dichotomy parienta/pariente to

express Tess’s standard language opposite to Abraham’s substandard

speech.

If Abraham’s dialect is neutralised, there is no difference between

Tess’s and her brother’s idiolect. In the 1942 and 2017 translations, both

characters make use of the standard language, making it difficult to

appreciate that Tess has a higher education than Abraham.

7.3. Linguistic difference between Tess and Alec d’Urberville

3 (a)

“Our names are worn away to Durbeyfiled: but we have several proofs

that we are d’Urbervilles. Antiquarians hold we are […] (Hardy, pp. 28-29)

3 (b)

—Nuestro apellido se ha ido desfigurando hasta parar en Durbeyfield,

pero podemos probar que nos llamamos de Urbervilles. Los anticuarios

sostienen que lo somos… […] (Ortega y Gasset, pp. 50-51)

3 (c)

—Nuestro apellido ha degenerado a Durbeyfield, pero tenemos varias

pruebas de ser d’Urberville. Los anticuarios lo afirman. […] (Franco Aixelá,

p. 62)

«As Tess grew older, and began to see how matters stood, she felt quite a Malthusian towards

her mother for thoughtlessly giving her so many little sisters and brothers, when it was such a

trouble to nurse and provide for them. […] However, Tess became humanely beneficent

towards the small ones, and to help them as much as possible she used, as soon as she left

school». (Hardy, 1991, pp. 24-25)

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3 (d)

—Nuestro apellido se ha ido viciando hasta acabar en Durbeyfield,

pero tenemos pruebas de que somos d’Urberville. Los que estudian las

cosas antiguas nos han asegurado […] (Martínez Muñoz, pp. 60-61)

Here can be seen how Tess’s idiolect suffers a transformation when

addressing to a noble person. As has been said, Tess’s linguistic duality

allows her to shift from Wessex dialect to standard language. This distinction

is clear in the translations of Ortega y Gasset and Franco Aixelá, where the

higher syntax and language have been maintained. In these versions terms

such as desfigurar, degenerar or anticuarios can be found, with which the

idiolectal change in Tess becomes visible.

However, in Martínez Muñoz’s version a new strategy can be found,

one that could be named as «linguistic decrease». With it, the translator

decreases Tess’s idiolect by translating antiquatians into «los que estudian

las cosas antiguas». In the original, Tess uses a specific term, translated by

neutral elements in the target text. By doing so, perhaps the linguistic

difference between Alec, born noble, and Tess, with rural background, is

highlighted. Nevertheless, if Tess’s high language is not maintained, in the

latest translation one cannot see how the heroine shifts her idiolect

depending on to whom she talks.

7.4. Difference between standard and substandard language in Tess

Durbeyfield

4 (a)

“What a mommet of a maid!”

“But I don’t care! O no—I don’t care! I’ll always be ugly now.” (Hardy,

pp. 219-220)

4 (b)

—¡Vaya una momia de muchacha!

—Pero ¡qué importa! Yo ahora quiero parecer fea. (Ortega y Gasset,

p. 104)

4 (c)

—¡Qué fea es!

—¡Pero no me importa! ¡No, no me importa! A partir de ahora siempre

seré fea. (Franco Aixelá, p. 357)

4 (d)

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—¡Qué adefesio!

—Pero me da igual. ¡Sí, me da igual! A partir de ahora siempre seré

fea. (Martínez Muñoz, pp. 341-342)

In this example, Tess’s duality can be very well appreciated, with the

parallelism between the dialectal term mommet, used by a farmer, and the

standard term ugly, spoken by Tess. Both terms carry a very similar

meaning. Through these elements, Tess’s distinctive idiolect can be

observed, who uses the standard language in comparison with the farmer’s

Wessex dialect.

For the translation of these terms, Franco Aixelá uses the strategy of

neutralisation, omitting the aforementioned parallelism since he uses in both

cases the adjective fea. The other translations have used various terms,

differentiating the idiolect of each character. Ortega y Gasset has opted to

use momia and fea. Regarding the former, it should be noted that, although

it does not correspond with any meaning for the word mommet, it may

maintain the dialectal effect by employing a colloquialism. This same

strategy can be found in Martínez Muñoz’s version, where the colloquial

word adefesio can be found. This way, both translators differentiate Tess’s

idiolect and the dialectal speech of the farmer. In the intervention, there are

also phonetic aspects, represented by the pronoun ‘em. As can be seen,

none of the translations maintain the substandard element.

The lexical parallelism reflects Tess’s idiolect. She, although her

native language is the dialect of Wessex, chooses to use a non-dialectal

term. If the distinction is not maintained, Tess’s and the farmer’s idiolects are

the same, decreasing the complexity of Tess’s character.

7.5. Other examples of Tess Durbeyfield’s linguistic duality

Throughout the novel, Tess constantly changes from dialect to

standard language. As has been said, this is one of the key features of the

heroine, whose duality is not only linguistic, but also identitary. In the

following dialogues (a-c) this distinction between Wessex and standard

language can be observed. Nevertheless, all translations use the strategy of

neutralisation, omitting the substandard elements in Tess’s speech.

A) ‘Twould be / It would be

5 (a)

“I shouldn’t care to do that. If there is such a lady ‘twould be enough

for us if she were friendly—not to expect her to give us help.” (Hardy, p. 24)

6 (a)

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“But I did not think it would be like this. I came, sir, to tell you that we

are of the same family as you.” (Hardy, pp. 28-29)

5 (b)

—De muy buena gana lo haré. Si existe tal señora, no nos vendría

mal que nos dispensase buena acogida, y nada de particular tendría que

nos prestase ayuda (Ortega y Gasset, pp. 44-45)

6 (b)

—Sólo que no creí que la cosa fuera como es. Venía, sir, a

participarles a ustedes que somos de la misma familia. (Ortega y Gasset,

pp. 50-51)

5 (c)

—No me parece una buena idea. Si existe esa señora, ya nos

sobraría con que fuese amable, y no deberíamos esperar que nos ayudase

(Franco Aixelá, pp. 55-56)

6 (c)

—Pero no creí que fuera a ser así. Vine, señor, a decirles que somos

de la misma familia que ustedes. (Franco Aixelá, p. 62)

5 (d)

—No quiero. Si existiera esa señora, ya sería demasiado que nos

tratara con amabilidad, pero no podemos esperar ayuda (Martínez Muñoz,

pp. 55-56)

6 (d)

—Pero no me lo imaginaba así. He venido, señor, para decirles que

somos de la misma familia. (Martínez Muñoz, pp. 60-61)

Tess’s linguistic duality can be seen through the distinction between

the structures ‘twould be and it would be. As can be observed, this

dichotomy is neutralised in the three translations, where the substandard

marks are substituted by standard language. With this strategy, the idiolectal

difference of Tess is deleted, transfiguring her identity.

B) ‘Twas / It was

7 (a)

“Pooh —the he didn’t mean it. ‘Twas just a man’s jest!” (Hardy, pp.

230-231)

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8 (a)

“I didn’t understand your meaning till it was too late.”

“That’s what every woman says.” (Hardy, p. 60)

7 (b)

—¡Bah!... No tendría mucho interés entonces… ¡Sería un capricho de

esos que les dan a los hombres!... (Ortega y Gasset, pp. 122-123)

8 (b)

—No comprendí lo que usted se proponía hasta que ya era tarde.

—Eso es lo que dicen todas. (Ortega y Gasset, p. 108)

7 (c)

—¡Bah… entonces es que no lo decía en serio! ¡No fue más que una

de esas chanas que hacen los hombres! (Franco Aixelá, p. 373)

8 (c)

—No comprendí lo que pretendías hasta que fue demasiado tarde.

—Eso es lo que dicen todas las mujeres. (Franco Aixelá, pp. 111-112)

7 (d)

—¡Bah! ¡No lo diría en serio! ¡Sería una broma de esas que gastan

los hombres! (Martínez Muñoz, p. 356)

8 (d)

—No entendí lo que buscabas hasta que ya era demasiado tarde.

—Eso dicen todas las mujeres. (Martínez Muñoz, p. 109)

In this example, Tess makes an alternation between it was (standard

language) and ‘twas (dialectal language). Nevertheless, her linguistic

variation is mitigated in all translations, as there are no dialectal marks in

Tess. All translators have decided to use the standard language in both

fragments, omitting Tess’s linguistic duality. This alteration is clearer in

Franco Aixelá’s version, who uses fue for the translation of both the standard

and dialectal language.

C) ‘Ee / You

9 (a)

“And if you go away from me I shall not follow ‘ee (Hardy, p. 180)

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10 (a)

“O my love, my love, why do I love you so! (Hardy; p. 168)

9 (b)

—Y si te vas de mi lado, no te he de seguir. (Ortega y Gasset, pp. 34-

35)

10 (b)

—¡Ay, amor mío, por qué te quiero tanto! (Ortega y Gasset, pp. 14-

15)

9 (c)

—Y si me abandonas no te seguiré (Franco Aixelá, p. 298)

10 (c)

—Mi amor, mi amor, por qué te amaré tanto! (Franco Aixelá, p. 279)

9 (d)

—Y, si me dejas, no te seguiré. (Martínez Muñoz, pp. 283-284)

10 (d)

—¡Ay, mi amor! ¿Por qué te querré tanto? (Martínez Muñoz, p. 266)

In these dialogues, Tess Durbeyfield’s linguistic duality is again

evident, due to the apparition of the personal pronouns you, which

corresponds to the standard language, and ye, with a dialectal mark.

However, the Spanish translations omit the substandard language, and with

it, Tess’s linguistic variation.

7.6. Identity change in Tess Durbeyfield

11 (a)

“The trees have inquisitive eyes, haven’t they? —that is, seem as if

they had. And the river says ‘Why do ye trouble me with your looks?’ (Hardy,

p. 97)

11 (b)

—Los árboles tienen ojos de curiosidad, ¿no es cierto?... Es decir,

que parece como si los tuvieran. Y el río va diciendo: “¿Por qué me miráis?”

(Ortega y Gasset, p. 175)

11 (c)

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—Los árboles tienen ojos inquisitivos, ¿no le parece? Quiero decir

que parece como si los tuvieran. Y el río dice: «¿Por qué me molestas con

tu aspecto?» (Franco Aixelá, pp. 170-171)

11 (d)

—Los árboles tienen unos ojos interrogantes, ¿verdad? O sea,

parece que los tengan. El río dice: «¿Por qué me molestas con tus

miradas?». (Martínez Muñoz, p. 162)

As happened in previous examples, Tess’s dialect is highlighted by

the pronoun ye. The strategy of all translations is neutralisation. In addition,

through her words a change in her personality can be observed: the happy,

energetic Tess present in the beginning of the novel leads now to a

melancholic and sad Tess. This transformation can be seen in the sentence

the trees have inquisitive eyes, with which Tess refers to the inquisitive eyes

of society, who condemns her. As can be inferred, the lexical term

inquisitive has a strong meaning in Tess’s idiolect. It should be noted that

she constantly feels the social pressure for having been raped. She does not

consider herself pure, nor worthy of marriage. Thus, if terms with different

connotations are used (as in Ortega y Gasset’s and Martínez Muñoz’s

versions), the constant guilt, very characteristic in Tess, may be altered.

7.7. Passiveness in Tess Durbeyfield’s idiolect

12 (a)

“Nobody loves it; nobody sees it.” (Hardy, p. 237)

12 (b)

—Nadie me quiere ni me mira (Ortega y Gasset, p. 133)

12 (c)

—Nadie lo ama, nadie lo ve. (Franco Aixelá, p. 383)

12 (d)

—Nadie me quiere ni me mira. (Martínez Muñoz, p. 364)

In this part of the novel, Angel discovers Tess’s past and decides to

abandon her. This dialogue reflects a great change in Tess’s personality, as

she does not care about her aspect or her condition and refers to herself

with the neutral pronoun it. The translation which best maintains this effect is

Franco Aixelá’s, who uses the pronoun lo. However, this may create

ambiguity as the pronoun can be understood as a way to referring Angel,

and not Tess. On the other hand, Ortega y Gasset and Martínez Muñoz omit

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the idiolectal feature, using the pronoun me. By using this pronoun, the

repercussion that the rape entails in Tess’s idiolect disappear. By not

maintaining the pronoun it, the passiveness in Tess, who does not consider

herself human, but an object, a thing, is lost in translation.

7.8. Tess Durbeyfield’s last words

13 (a)

“It is as it should be! Angel—I am almost glad—yes, glad! This

happiness could not have lasted—it was too much—I have had enough; and

now I shall not live for you to despise me. I am ready” (Hardy, p. 312)

13 (b)

—No tenía más remedio que ser así. Angel, después de todo, me

alegro. Sí…, estoy muy contenta… Esta felicidad no podía durar mucho…;

ya ha durado demasiado… He gozado bastante; ya no quiero vivir más, no

sea que vayas a despreciarme… ¡Vamos! (Ortega y Gasset, p. 265)

13 (c)

—Es como debe ser. Angel, estoy casi contenta… ¡Sí, contenta! Esta

felicidad no hubiera durado. Era demasiado. Yo ya tengo suficiente y no

viviré para ver cómo me desprecias. Estoy dispuesta (Franco Aixelá, p. 500)

13 (d)

—Así tenía que ser. Casi estoy contenta, Angel. Sí, ¡contenta! Esta

felicidad no podía durar. Era demasiada. He sido muy feliz, y no quiero

seguir viviendo para ver que puedas llegar a despreciarme. Estoy lista.

(Martínez Muñoz, pp. 475-476)

This words perfectly correspond to the main character’s identity. As

has been said earlier, Tess feels guilty for the sin that she has committed,

and is aware that her husband will repudiate her for the murder of Alec.

Therefore, the words «it is as it should be» express how Tess accepts her

punishment. In relation to this sentence, it is necessary to highlight Martínez

Muñoz’s translation, as the strength and energy of Tess is maintained.

Regarding the lexical aspects, the term glad should be mentioned,

translated in all versions into contenta. Ortega y Gasset adds the modifier

muy, altering Tess’s identity, as she is almost glad, because she does not

want to see how Angel will despise her. On the other hand, in relation to the

morphosyntactic aspects, the sentence «I am ready» should be analysed.

Martínez Muñoz seems to better maintain Tess’s idiolect, who has accepted

her end. The resignation or fulfilment does not seem to appear in the other

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translations. The translation of Ortega y Gasset has a modulation, in which

the compensation strategy can be observed, by adding exclamation marks.

However, in the original Tess accepts her future solemnly, thus these marks

may alter her identity.

CONCLUSIONS

The translation of linguistic variation, as has been said, is an aspect

with no easy solution nor unanimous, due to the wide variety of translation

strategies and the difficulty of transferring dialects in target texts. In linguistic

variation, idiolect is one of the pillars for identity configuration, as with a

mere sentence or term the reader is able to identify a character.

As has been observed in this project, Tess Durbeyfield is a very

complex character, with a very marked idiolect and a wide register. She is

able to use both the standard language and Wessex dialect, depending on

the context and her interlocutor. This peculiar feature distinguishes her from

the rest of the characters in the novel, who use either the standard language

(such as Angel Clare or Alec d’Urberville) or the Wessex dialect (such as

Tess’s family and friends), but they never use both. This aspect is key to

understand the complexity of Tess Durbeyfield. In some cases, the linguistic

variation found in the original has been translated with different strategies

such as colloquialism, compensation, or violation of the linguistic norm.

These strategies seem to usually occur in lexical and morphosyntactic

structures. Nevertheless, regarding dialectal structures, neutralisation seems

to predominate in all translations. This decision alters Tess’s identity, no

longer characterised by a linguistic duality, as the vast majority of dialectal

language is neutralised in all three translations. As a result, Tess is no

longer a complex and dual character, capable of modulating her idiolect, and

whose language illustrates the tragic events in her life. In the translated

texts, Tess’s speech is marked with mostly standard language, which makes

her idiolect more similar to that of Alec and Angel, and distances her from

the Wessex rural world. This neutralisation can lead to the reader’s failing to

differentiate Tess’s idiolect (and identity) from the rest or to perceive the

changes the heroine’s idiolect suffers throughout the novel.

It can be said, therefore, that a fundamental aspect in order to

preserve the character’s identity resides in their idiolect. If their linguistic

variation is not maintained, the difference between characters will be

decreased, or even omitted. With idiolects, one can know the story behind a

character, their origin, social class, the time in which they live, their ideology,

and education. Regarding Tess Durbeyfield, the reader can see in her

interventions that she grew up in a rural background (therefore, she was

raised with Wessex dialect) but that she also received an education from

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Hikma 20 (2) (2021), 177 - 202

which she adopted features of the standard language. The combination of

her education and her upbringing gives her a very interesting linguistic

duality. However, if idiolects are altered, this presupposed story may remain

hidden. That is why linguistic variation should be reflected in target texts, as

it provides the literary texts and its characters with unique features. As has

been said before, the apparition of linguistic variation in a text is always

deliberate. Therefore, it should not be omitted in translation, since it could

lead to a distortion of not only the characters, but the text itself.

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