ISSN: 1579-9794

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

Looking through the Lens of Bourdieu: A Corpus-based

Study of English Romance Fiction Translation Concerning

the Translation Strategies of CSIs

Mirando a través de la lente de Bourdieu: un estudio

basado en corpus de la traducción de ficción romántica

inglesa sobre las estrategias de traducción de los CSI

FAHIME MOHAMMADPOUR

fahime_mohammadpour@yahoo.com

University of Sistan and Baluchestan

MOHAMMADTAGHI SHAHNAZAR

(Corresponding author)

m.shahnazari@fgn.ui.ac.ir

University of Isfahan

AHMOUD AFROUZ

m.afrouz@fgn.ui.ac.ir

University of Isfahan

Fecha de recepción: 30/04/2021

Fecha de aceptación: 09/12/2021

Abstract: Translatorial habitus is a key term incorporated Bourdieusian

sociological concept of habitus and Translation Studies’ translation norms. In

light of Bourdieu’s theoretical model of sociology, this study sought to

address the translatorial behaviour of the Iranian translators of English

romance novels in terms of the translation strategies of Culture-Specific

Items (CSIs) before and after the Cultural Revolution of 1980 in Iran. 4282

sentences containing CSIs were obtained from Rebecca, Sense and

Sensibility, the Great Gatsby, and their two Persian translations. Based on

how each CSI was translated, they were grouped under one of Liang's

proposed categorization. The frequency and percentages of each procedure

were calculated using SPSS software. Moreover, the results were cross-

checked with a qualitative analysis of some archived interviews printed in

Motarjem [the translator] journal, newspapers, and WebPages. The

evidence from this study suggests that there was a clear foreignizing trend

among Iranian translators of the English romance novels when translating

CSIs not only in the Pre-Cultural Revolution era but also in the Post-Cultural

Revolution era. Also, a significant difference between various strategies

utilized in the two eras was detected.

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Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

Keywords: Romance fiction translation, Bourdieu’s sociological model,

Literary field, Habitus, Culture-specific items (CSIs), Pre/ Post-Cultural

Revolution era, Capital.

Resumen: El habitus traductor es un término clave que incorpora el

concepto sociológico de habitus de Bourdieu y las normas de traducción de

los estudios de traducción. A la luz del modelo teórico de sociología de

Bourdieu, este estudio buscó abordar el comportamiento traductor de los

traductores iraníes de novelas románticas inglesas en términos de las

estrategias de traducción de elementos específicos de la cultura (CSI) antes

y después de la Revolución Cultural de 1980 en Irán. Se obtuvieron 4282

oraciones que contenían CSI de Rebecca, Sentido y Sensibilidad, El Gran

Gatsby y sus dos traducciones al persa. Según cómo se tradujo cada CSI,

se agruparon en una categorización propuesta por Liang. La frecuencia y

los porcentajes de cada procedimiento se calcularon mediante el software

SPSS. Además, los resultados se cotejaron con un análisis cualitativo de

algunas entrevistas archivadas impresas en la revista Motarjem [el

traductor], periódicos y páginas web. La evidencia de este estudio sugiere

que hubo una clara tendencia a la extranjerización entre los traductores

iraníes de las novelas románticas inglesas al traducir CSI no solo en la era

prerevolución cultural sino también en la era de la posrevolución cultural.

Además, se detectó una diferencia significativa entre varias estrategias

utilizadas en las dos épocas.

Palabras clave: Traducción de ficción romántica, Modelo sociológico de

Bourdieu, Campo literario, Habitus, Elementos específicos de la cultura

(CSI), Era pre/post-revolución cultural, Capital.

INTRODUCTION

Taking from the works of Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, Bourdieu

proposed a theory of social and cultural production which is claimed to

overstep the choice between subjectivism and objectivism: «subjectivism

inclines people to reduce structures to interactions; objectivism tends to

deduce actions and interactions from the structure» (Bourdieu, 1990, p.

129). Bourdieu underlines that his theory deals with issues such as «the

relationship between cultural practices and broader social processes, the

social position of intellectuals and artists, the connections between systems

of thought, social institutions and different forms of material and symbolic

power» (Wolf, 2013, p. 505).

In recent years, several attempts have been made to get translation

studies’ scholars acquainted with the sociological concepts: the «sociological

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eye» (Simeoni, 2005, p. 12). Habitus, field and capital are the most basic

pieces of this theoretical apparatus. Of these terms, the concept of habitus

has captured some translation scholars' attention because it casts light «on

the social implications of translation and the social dimension of the

constraints operative in the translation procedure» (Wolf, 2013, p. 508).

Historical inquiry of Persian literature unveils major changes in genres

such as fiction and poetry. Such major changes, particularly those occurring

after vital moments like The Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979 have been

always associated with social and political changes. One of the significant

events following The Islamic Revolution of Iran which initiated a gradual

cultural change was The Cultural Revolution of 1980. Ayatollah Khomeini,

the first religious leader of post-Revolution of Iran, gave a speech that set

the stage for the so-called Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution

initially closed universities for three years (1980–1983) and after reopening

many books were banned and many professors were expelled from

universities.

The Cultural Revolution has been chosen as the focus of this study

because of its effect on the translation of literary books. Haddadian-

Moghaddam illustrates it as:

Prior to this second revolution, and as a result of the temporary

freedom of press at the start of the Islamic Revolution, the

publishing field experienced a sudden boom with respect to the

publication of banned books of the previous period. But as time

went on, growing readership, market demand, and the aftermath of

the «Cultural Revolution» contributed to the idea that translation

could be a viable profession (see Azarang, 2007, p. 267–268). In

other words, because many intellectuals could not teach at

universities, which were closed following the «Cultural Revolution»,

they turned to translation, as the last resort. (Haddadian-

Moghaddam, 2014, p. 118)

In this study, Bourdieu’s theoretical framework (1977, 1983, and 1984)

was employed since it presents a thorough investigation of the role of social

agents in structuring and restructuring the translational field. This study

examines the field of translation and its socio-cultural factors, in the period

around the Cultural Revolution in Iran, between the 1960s and 2010s,

considering how they have governed social agents’ behaviour and dictated

the modes of production and circulation of translated works in an Iranian

context.

A survey of the existing literature suggests that most studies on

English-translated romance fiction into Persian have focused on linguistic

issues at the textual level, resulting in microscopic analyses of translational

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Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

phenomena, with little attention paid to cultural and social perspectives.

Similarly, relatively few studies focusing on romance fiction translations have

either considered the impact of translators and other agents in the field or

have addressed the influence of socio-cultural factors in the field on agents’

practices. Hence, there is a need to locate translators as social agents in the

field and to develop a perception of translation as a «socially situated

practice» (Liang, 2010), in this case by considering the socio-cultural factors

that govern the production and presentation of romance fiction translation,

and the distribution of power among translation agents (i.e., translators).

Overall, the current study is an attempt to examine translation strategies

employed by English romance novels translators for handling CSIs (i.e., the

references that are non-existent in the receiving culture or have a different

function and value in the receiving culture) into Persian before and after the

Cultural Revolution in Iran.

In general, the research questions addressed in the study include:

1. Is there any collective behaviour in the strategies of translating

CSIs employed by the Iranian translators of English romance novels before

the Cultural Revolution?

2. Is there any collective behaviour in the strategies of translating

CSIs employed by the Iranian translators of English romance novels after

the Cultural Revolution?

3. Has the collective behaviour in the strategies of translating CSIs

employed by the Iranian translators of English romance novels changed

before and after the Cultural Revolution (the 1960s to 2010s)?

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In the late 1990s, Bourdieu’s theory of practice has been of proven

value to offer an exhaustive account of how social agents construct a field

and how a field shapes its practices. While different theories from different

approaches in the field of translation studies, from the linguistic approach to

the systemic perspective, have regarded the translated text as «a

depersonalized construct of structural relationships» (Meylaerts, 2013, p.

104), since 1970, sociological models have underscored the dialectical

relationship between objective social structures and subjective social actors

(Hanna, 2005). One of the first scholars who offered to use Bourdieu’s

sociology and the various categories of his cultural sociology for the study of

translation was Jean-Marc Gouanvic (1997, 1999). He has mentioned that

Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of cultural action can be widely utilized in translation

studies since «it is a sociology of the text as a production in the process of

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being carried out, of the product itself and of its consumption in the social

fields, the whole seen in a relational manner» (Gouanvic, 2005, p. 148).

Moreover, it was Daniel Simeoni (1998) who first recommended

including the concept of habitus in the theory of norms set forth by Toury and

introduced the term «translational habitus» to Translation Studies literature.

He argued that «as a result of the continuous historically conditioned

acceptance of norms on behalf of translators, the translators’ willingness to

accept these norms had a decisive impact on the secondary nature of their

activity as such» (Simeoni, 1998, p. 6; cited in Wolf, 2013, p. 510).

1.1. Habitus, Field, and Capital

Habitus is a Latin word that refers to a habitual or typical condition,

state, or appearance, particularly of the body. Bourdieu retains some of the

concept’s original meaning(s) in the relationship between the body and the

habitus. The dispositions and generative classificatory schemes which are

the essence of the habitus are embodied in real human beings (Jenkins,

1992, p. 45). Bourdieu (1993a, p. 87) admits that habitus is a «product of

conditionings which tends to reproduce the objective logic of those

conditionings while transforming it».

To employ Bourdieusian sociology in TS, Simeoni (1998) rewrote

‘translational habitus’ in his paper entitled «The Pivotal Status of the

Translator’s Habitus». In this paper, Simeoni attempts to link Bourdieu’s

concept of habitus with Toury’s concept of translational norms. He

advocates that the research focus should build upon translatorial habitus

(ibid. p. 21) instead of translational norms. The introduction of the concept of

translatorial habitus would engender «finer-grain analyses of the socio-

cognitive emergence of translating skills and their outcome, in particular at

the micro-level of stylistic variation» (ibid. p. 33). This means that translators’

lexical, grammatical, and rhetorical decisions are determined by their

translatorial habitus, which can, in turn, be interpreted as the actualization of

translational norms. Guzmán (2013) argues that Simeoni’s definition of the

translator’s habitus «gives strength to the idea of the translator as a social

and cultural agent, partly by specifying the special cultural capital required

for the task but also positioning the translator among other types of agents.»

Voinova & Shlesinger (2013) conducted a study to address how

translators of Russian literature into Hebrew, from the 1970s till now, present

themselves, their work and their profession and reflect on their habitus, their

conduct in the system of Russian literature translation, and their practice.

Through the theories of Bourdieu and of Even-Zohar, the self-

representations of translators were explored. It was found out that although

the translators of Russian literature into Hebrew adopted different models,

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they shared both a social and professional habitus which is a way of

achieving status in the culture, accumulating capital, and constructing their

(distinctive) group identity.

With the help of Pierre Bourdieu’s sociological model, Liang (2016)

addressed translators’ behaviours in translating fantasy fiction in Taiwan. To

investigate the social and cultural nature of translation by locating this

activity within a particular social structure, a parallel corpus of four fantasy

fiction translations was examined. The evidence from the textual analysis

revealed a source-oriented tendency when dealing with culture-specific

items (CSIs).

Ahed Alkhawaja (2019) sought to identify the extent to which the

agents’ habitus and intellectual trajectory influence the end product of

translation and further understand the complex portrait of how the agents’

experiences, history, and backgrounds influence the process of translation.

As a case study, research involves an interview with the translator Trevor Le

Gassick, identifying his experiences, history and backgrounds that might

influence the process of translation to figure out if he has a certain degree of

liberty in his choice of strategies and practices. To confirm the interview

responses, the researcher presents some examples from Gassick’s

translation of novels written by the Egyptian Nobel laureate Naguib Mahfouz.

The findings of this study indicate that the translator’s habitus and

intellectual life trajectories strongly influence the process and product of

translation. This will allow for more consideration of individual agency

concerning cultural production.

Sapiro (2013) studied the relation between translation and identity

through the case of translators from Modern Hebrew literature into French.

In this investigation, the conditions for the acquisition of linguistic skills and

the paths that lead to the translational practice were analyzed based on a

study of the social properties and trajectories of the translators. It is

concluded that how translators do their work depends on «their degree of

professionalization, the work conditions in the target publishing field, their

ability to choose and to propose translations, the space left open for

negotiation with publishers» (Sapiro, 2013, p. 79).

Drawing mainly on Bourdieu’s genetic sociology, Hanna (2005)

challenged mainstream histories of the early translations of Shakespeare’s

drama in Egypt through a reading of the first published translation of ‘Hamlet’

into Arabic (1902). He examined Tanyous ’Abduh’s translation which is the

first published Arabic translation of the play. In Hanna’s (2005, p. 190) view,

«the high demand for translated popular fiction in newspapers which

influenced Tanyous ’Abduh and his fellow translators was typical of a mode

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of production» that Bourdieu (1993b, p. 125) terms ‘large-scale’. In other

words, this change in the plot and generic structures of Hamlet was a

response to this mode of production.

Liu (2013) reported a quantitative analysis of the relationship between

translators’ visibility and the amount of capital that they receive. The analysis

was based on 193 Chinese translators in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and

Macao. It displayed that the more visible the translator, the more capital they

receive. Among the four kinds of capital, the more visible the translator, the

more social and cultural capital they receive. In addition, it presented that

«some social variables including sex, level of education, region that the

translator lives in, the translator’s major field of study and the time spent on

translation are not related to visibility or capital received. Meanwhile, the

appearance of the translator’s name on translations is significantly related to

the capital received» (Liu, 2013, p. 25). Liu (ibid, p. 54) found that what is to

be significantly related to the translator’s visibility and the capital received is

the appearance of a translator’s name on translations.

1.2. Culture-Specific Items (CSIs)

Before dealing with the concept of Culture-Specific Items (CSIs), it is

essential to know how culture is formed. Larson (1984, p. 431) defines

culture as «a complex of beliefs, attitudes, values, and rules which a group

of people share». Several authors have attempted to define CSIs, but as yet

there is still no exact definition. Baker (1992, p. 21) defines a culture-specific

word: «The source language word may express a concept which is totally

unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or

concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or even a type of

food». It can be inferred that the determination of CSIs lies not only in their

non-existence in the target culture but also in having a different function and

value in the target culture.

2. METHOD

This study as a descriptive corpus study aims to investigate the

collective behaviours of translation agents in translating CSIs of romance

novels in Iran's literary field. To meet this goal, this study used a parallel

corpus to detect translation agents' textual practices in microscopic analysis.

Using parallel corpus in translation studies helps the translation studies

researchers to find out whether there is any normalized feature in translation

(Kenny, 2000, p. 94). The corpus, containing three English novels and their

two Persian translations, was selected based on the criteria presented in

section 3.1. The English selected novels and their two Persian translations

were read side by side, to identify how each CSI is translated and then,

group each item under one of Liang's (2010, p. 121) proposed categorization

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presented in section 3.2. Since the size of the corpus was manageable, the

corpus was analyzed manually, and 4282 samples of CSIs were hand-

picked scrupulously to make sure that they are representative and reliable.

To assess the inter-rater reliability of the study, 25 per cent of the collected

data were sent to an English language expert and university professor, and

they were confirmed through the same codification system with 96 per cent.

Then, the frequency and percentages of each procedure were calculated

using SPSS software. Moreover, a Chi-square test was performed for the

strategies of translating CSIs employed by the Iranian translators of English

romance novels before the Cultural Revolution and each strategy was

compared in both eras. An archive of printed interviews from Motarjem

journal, newspapers, and WebPages was examined in the interviews’

analysis phase.

2.1. Corpus-based selection criteria

Employing the corpus-based methods assist Translation Studies

researchers to discover the translational norms in a specific socio-cultural

and historical context (Baker, 1995, p. 231). The data were derived from a

parallel corpus selected based on the following criteria:

(A) The texts in the corpus under consideration are from the romance

novel genre.

(B) Three translations were chosen from those made both before and

after the Cultural Revolution of Iran in each decade, i.e., from the 1960s to

the 2010s.

(D) The novels are being translated by well-known and reputable

Iranian translators.

(E) The novels are published by prestigious publishing houses.

(F) There is a one to four decades gap between the two investigated

translations.

(G) The novels chosen were originally written in English and were

then translated into Persian (direct translation).

Table 1 shows the selected three books, each with two translations,

based on the aforementioned criteria.

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Publication

Year

Post-Cultural

Revolution

Translator

Publication year

Pre-Cultural

Revolution

Translator

Author

Publication

Year

Book Title

2012 Keyhan 1992 Shakibapour

Daphne du

Maurier

1938 Rebecca

2006 Rezaei 1995 Karamifar Jane Austen 1811 Sense and

Sensibility

2013 Afshar 1965 Emami F. Scott

Fitzgerald

1925 The Great

Gatsby

Table 1: Corpus of the study

2.2.Procedures for Obtaining and Categorizing the Data (CSIs)

In this study, definitions of culture and CSIs presented by Larson

(1984, p. 431) and Baker (1992, p. 21), and also based on the data available

in the corpus of the present study, CSIs were recognized and categorized

into eight types as presented in Table 2:

Sample CSIs

Jesus Christ, Upon my soul, Good God Religious expressions

Colonel Julyan, Ma’am, Hon. Miss Morton Proper nouns, terms of address and titles

Soufflé, dessert, Constantia wine Food and drink

Easter, piquet, Cassino Domestic life, activities, and festivals

Out of sight, out of mind, the skeleton in the

family

Common expressions

Shooting-jacket, waist coat Cloths

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Guineas, pounds, mile Measurements

Kerrith, Loire, Wigmore Street Geographical places

Table 2: Categorization of CSIs

It is expected that translation agents’ collective behaviour, namely

translatorial habitus, in translating English romance fiction into Persian in

Iran will be revealed through a systematic descriptive approach, constructed

by unifying the functions of the translation procedures proposed by Aixelá

(1996), Davies (2003) and Klingberg (1986). Liang (2010, p. 120) compared

the categorizations of translation procedures of culture-specific items as

shown in Table 3.

Aixelá (1996) Davies (2003) Klingberg (1986)

Repetition Preservation Rewording

Orthographic adaptation Addition Added explanation

Linguistic

(non-cultural)

translation

Omission Explanatory translation

Extratextual gloss Globalization Explanation outside the text

Intratextual gloss Localization Substitution of an equivalent

in the culture of

target language

Synonymy Transformations Substitution of a rough

equivalent in the culture

of the target language

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Limited universalization Creation Simplification

Absolute universalization Deletion

Naturalization Localization

Deletion

Autonomous creation

Table 3: The categorizations of translation procedures of CSIs by three scholars

To develop a comprehensive model which covers all procedures

overlapping in function, Liang (2010, p. 21) proposed a consolidated

categorization by unifying the translation procedures as follows:

Transliteration (T), Rendition (R), Substitution (S), Convention (C),

Extratextual Addition (EA), Intratextual Addition (IA), Cultural Dilution (CD),

Naturalization (N), and Omission (O).

3. RESULTS

AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Textual analysis (Micro-analysis)

3.1.1. Transliteration

Transliteration, also known as «phonetic translation», is a procedure

in which the closest corresponding target language sound of an item is used

for translation (Liang, 2010, p. 121). Some instances of transliteration are

given in Table 4.

Book

Back-Translation

from Persian

Rebecca

… Mademoiselle will have lunch

with me.

(p. 16)

....لازوﻣدﺎﻣ ﯽــﻣ اذــﻏ نﻣ ﺎﺑ

.ص ،نﺎﮭﯾﮐ)دﻧروﺧ48(

… Mademoiselle will

have lunch with me.

Sense and

Sensibility

She must build a stable to

rescue them. (p. 40)

ﮏــﯾ نﺗﺧﺎﺳ هرﺧﻻﺎﺑ ل ﺑ ط ــ ﺻ ا

ﯽـــﻣ یرورـــﺿ ﺎـــﮭﻧآ یارـــﺑ

.ص ،رﻓ ﯽﻣرﮐ) .دوﻣﻧ76(

She must build a

stable to rescue

them. (p. 40)

The Great

Gatsby

This is Klipspringer. (p. 180)

هدﻧﺑرﮕﻧﯾرﭘﺳا پﯾﻠﮐ.

.ص ،رﻓ ﯽﻣﺎﻣا)211(

This is Klipspringer.

Table 4: Instances of Transliteration

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3.1.2. Rendition

Rendition, also known as literal translation, is used when a cultural

item is translated literally by its closest corresponding meaning in the target

language. It is faithful to the source language expression and transparent in

the target language through word-for-word translation. Table 5 presents

examples of rendition extracted from the novels.

Book

Back-Translation

from Persian

Rebecca

Go on, for God’s sake.

(p. 265)

،ورﺑ ادﺧ رطﺎﺧ ﮫﺑ ...ورﺑ

.ص ،نﺎﮭﯾﮐ)755 (

Go on, for God’s

sake.

Sense and

Sensibility

The constant attention of

Mr and Mrs Henry

Dashwood to his wishes,;

… (p. 3)

یﺎﻗآ و مﻧﺎﺧ ﮫﺗﺳوﯾﭘ ﮫﺟوﺗ

یﺎھزﺎﯾﻧ ﮫﺑ دووﺷد یرﻧھ

.ص ،رﻓ ﯽﻣرﮐ) ...،وا4 (

The constant

attention of Mr and

Mrs Henry

Dashwood to his

wishes,; …

The Great

Gatsby

The Carraways are

something of a clan and

we have a tradition that

we're descended from

the Dukes of

Buccleuch,…(p. 2)

ﺎــھ یو هرﺎــﮐ نﺎــﺷدوﺧ یارــﺑ

ﺎﻣ و دﻧوﺷ ﯽﻣ یا ﮫﻠﯾﺑﻗ روﺟﮑﯾ

دوــﺧ نآ ﻖﺑط ﮫﮐ مﯾراد ﯽﺗﯾاور

هداوﻧ اروﻠﮐﺎــﺑ یﺎــھ کود ﯽ ــ ﻣ

.ص ،رﺎﺷﻓا) .مﯾﻧاد19(

The Carraways are

something of a clan

and we have a

tradition that we’re

descended from the

Dukes of

Buccleuch,…

Table 5: Instances of Rendition

3.1.3. Substitution

It means that a name that is not formally or semantically related is

substituted in the target text for any name that exists in the source text

(Hermans, 1988, p. 13). In this case, the original CSI and its substituted CSI

are not related formally or semantically. In other words, an item in the target

language is substituted for another but retains a foreign flavour (Liang, 2010,

p. 123). Table 6 presents instances of substitution which are randomly

chosen from the novels.

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Table 6: Instances of Substitution

3.1.4. Convention

A referred term is translated in a conventional manner using

convention. This translation method is most commonly used to translate

specific historical or literary characters as well as geographical names. Its

foundation is the item's meaning or sound (Liang, 2010). Table 7 includes

some examples that were extracted from the novels to illustrate how the

Convention was applied by the translator.

Book

Back-Translation

from Persian

Rebecca

Curried prawns, roast veal,

asparagus, and cold

chocolate mousse-… (p. 70)

، هدرـــﮐ خرـــﺳ ﮓـــﻧﭼرﺧ

زﺎــﯾﭘ ،ﮫﻟﺎﺳوﮔ تﺷوﮔ بﺎﺑﮐ

و تﻻوﮐوــﺷ ﺎــﺑ وھﺎﮐ رﺳد

.ص ،ﺎﺑﯾﮑﺷ)110(

Curried prawns, roast

veal, asparagus, and

lettuce dessert with

cold chocolate -… (p.

70)

Sense and

Sensibility

In his addressing her sister by

her Christian name alone,…

(p. 41)

وا ﮫـــــــﮐ روـــــــطﻧآ و ...

ﺎـــــﺑ ار شرھاوـــــﺧ مـــــﺳا

ﮏــــﭼوﮐ و هدز ادــــﺻ وا

...،دوــﺑ هداد رارــﻗ بطﺎﺧﻣ

،رﻓ ﯽﻣرﮐ)78(

In his addressing her

sister by her first

name

alone,… (p.

41)

Book

Back-Translation

from Persian

Rebecca

… and opened the door in his

dressing-gown. (p. 139)

ﮫــــــﮑﯾﻟﺎﺣ رد دــــــﻌﺑ ﯽــــــﻣﮐ

رﺑﻣﺎﺷودﺑور رد دوــــﺑ هدﯾــــﺷوﭘ

.ص ،نﺎـــﮭﯾﮐ) .درـــﮐ زﺎـــﺑار

385(

… and opened the

door in his Robe de

Chambre. (p. 139)

Sense and

Sensibility

…, will make it a very snug

little cottage. (p. 19)

ﮏــﯾ بﺣﺎــﺻ تــﻗو نآی ﻼ ــ ﯾ و

ﯽـــﻣ روـــﺟ و ﻊـــﻣﺟ و ﺞـــﻧد

.ص ،ﯽﺋﺎﺿر)...مﯾوﺷ39(

…, will make it a very

snug little villa. (p.

19)

The Great

Gatsby

Tom and Miss Baker sat at

the end of the long couch. (p.

21)

رﺳ ود رد رﮑﯾﺑ هزﯾﺷود و موﺗ

ﮫـــﭘﺎﻧﺎﮐ دـــﻧدوﺑ ﮫﺗـــﺳﺷﻧ یدـــﻧﻠﺑ

.ص ،رﺎﺷﻓا)44(

Tom and Miss Baker

sat at the end of the

long canapé. (p. 21)

120 Looking through The Lens of Bourdieu […]

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

The Great

Gatsby

They were so engrossed in

each other that she didn't see

me until I was five feet away.

(p. 81)

و پــﮔ رﮕﯾدــﮑﯾ ﺎﺑ نﺎﻧﭼ نآ

ﮫـــﺟوﺗﻣ ﮫـــﮐ دﻧﺗـــﺷاد تــﻔﮔ

ﺎــﺗ دﻧدــﺷﻧ نــﻣ ندﺷ ﮏﯾدزﻧ

ﻠﺻﺎﻓ ﮫﺑ ﮫﮐ نﯾا ﺞﻧﭘ ﮫﯽﻣدــﻗ

.ص ،رﺎــﺷﻓا) مدﯾــﺳر نﺎــﻧآ

153(

They were so

engrossed in each

other that she didn't

see me until I was

five steps away.

Table 7: Instances of Convention

3.1.5. Extratextual addition

Extratextual addition is a procedure in which an explanation of the

meaning or implication of a cultural term is added as a separate part of the

translated CSI. In other words, extra information is presented by including a

footnote, glossary, endnote, commentary, preface, and so on (Liang, 2010,

p. 126). Some samples are provided in Table 8 to present a better

understanding of how CSIs were translated using extratextual addition.

Table 8: Instances of Extratextual Addition

Book

Back-Translation

from Persian

Rebecca

I took a piece of crumpet and

divided it between two dogs.

(p. 96)

1. رودــﻣ نﺎﻧ صرﻗ ﯽﻋوﻧ

فرــﺻ هرــﮐ ﺎــﺑ و مرــﮔ ﮫﮐ

دوﺷ ﯽﻣ- ،نﺎﮭﯾﮐ) .م268(

1. A small round

griddlecake served

with butter

Sense and

Sensibility

…- Thomson

, Cowper, Scott

- she would buy them all over

and over again. (p. 66)

1. ) نــﺳﻣﺎﺗ زﻣﯾﺟ1700-

1748 رﻌﺷ نﺎﻣﺎﮕﺷﯾﭘ زا (

.ﮏــﯾﺗﻧﺎﻣر .ص ،ﯽﯾﺎــﺿر)

104(

1. James Thomson

(1700-1748), one of

the foremost

Romantic poet

The Great

Gatsby

… and then assumed a more

tangible form as a place to

have a mint julep

. (p. 134)

1 . زا طوــــﻠﺧﻣ ﯽﺑورــــﺷﻣ

ﺦــﯾ و عﺎﻧﻌﻧ،رﮑﺷ ،ﯽﮑﺳﯾو

.ص ،رﻓ ﯽﻣﺎﻣا)162(

1. A mixed alcoholic

drink consisting

primarily of whisky,

sugar, fresh mint,

and crushed or

shaved ice.

F. Mohammadpour, M. Shahnazar and M. Afrouz 121

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

3.1.6. Intratextual addition

The methods of intratextual addition and extratextual addition are

similar. What distinguishes them is that when translating a CSI, additional

explanatory information is provided as an indistinct part (Liang, 2010, p.

125). Table 9 shows some examples of intratextual addition.

Book

Back-Translation

from Persian

Rebecca

, and … (p. RaeburnIt was a

164)

یﺎــــھرﺎﮐ زا وﻠﺑﺎــــﺗ نــــﯾا

فورﻌﻣ شﺎﻘﻧ نوﺑور د و ــ ﺑ

.ص ،ﺎﺑﯾﮑﺷ) .. و277(

Raeburn, It was a

,the famous painter

and … (p. 164)

Sense and

Sensibility

Drury Lane Last night, in «

, I ran against Sir John lobby

Middleton...»

(p. 230)

»رد بـــﺷﯾد رﺗﺎـــﺋﺗ نﻟﺎـــﺳ

نﯾــــﻟ یورد نﺎﺟرــــﺳ ﺎــــﺑ

ﮫﻧﯾـــﺳ ﮫـــﺑ ﮫﻧﯾـــﺳ نﺗﻟدـــﯾﻣ

...مدﺷ«

.ص ،ﯽﯾﺎﺿر)352(

Drury Last night, in «

, I Lane theatre lobby

ran against Sir John

Middleton...»

The Great

Gatsby

‘Highballs?’ asked the head

waiter (p. 75)

:دﯾـــﺳرﭘ تﻣدﺧـــﺷﯾﭘرﺳ»

ﺦ ــ ﯾ ﺎ ــ ﺑ ﯽ ﮑ ﺳ ﯾ و؟« ،رﺎــﺷﻓا)

.ص143 (

?’ Whiskey with ice‘

asked the head

waiter

Table 9: Instances of Intratextual Addition

3.1.7. Cultural dilution

The cultural dilution procedure aims to produce a more neutral or

general rendition in the sense that target readers will be able to access the

cultural backgrounds of the source text more easily (Liang, 2010, p. 125).

Table 10 contains examples from the novels that demonstrate how the

translators dealt with various types of CSIs by utilizing cultural dilution.

Book

Back-Translation

from Persian

Rebecca

… I’d like a small glass of

brandy. (p. 203)

سﻼﯾـــــﮔ ﮏـــــﯾ نـــــﻣ ...

ﯽﻧدﯾﺷوﻧ ،نﺎــﮭﯾﮐ) مھاوﺧﯾﻣ

.ص566(

… I’d like a small

glass of drink.

Sense and

Sensibility

A glass of wine, which Elinor

produced for her directly,

made her more comfortable,

and … (p. 120)

تﻋرــﺳ ﮫــﺑ روــﻧﻟاﯽﺗﺑرــﺷ

ﮫــﮐ داد وا ﮫــﺑ و درــﮐ ﮫــﯾﮭﺗ

... و دﯾــﺷﺧﺑ یروــﻓ یرﯾﺛﺎﺗ

.ص ،رﻓ ﯽﻣرﮐ)209(

A glass of syrup,

which Elinor

produced for her

directly, made her

more comfortable,

and … (p. 120)

122 Looking through The Lens of Bourdieu […]

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

The Great

Gatsby

A succulent hash arrived. (p.

77)

و هزﺎﺗ و رﺗ یاذﻏ فرظ

رادﺑآ ،رﺎﺷﻓا) ... دﯾﺳر ﮫﮐ

.ص146 (

A dish of juicy fresh

meal arrived.

Table 10: Instances of Cultural Dilution

3.1.8. Naturalization

The goal of this procedure is to provide the target readers with a

more transparent and fluent translation. Naturalisation is the process of

replacing a source culture reference with a target culture reference (Liang,

2010, p. 127-8). Some samples of naturalisation are shown in Table 11.

Table 11: Instances of Naturalization

3.1.9. Omission

This procedure is used if the cultural item is omitted because it is not

ideologically or stylistically appropriate for the target reader (Liang, 2010, p.

127). Some samples of transliteration omission are given in Table 12.

Book

Back-Translation

from Persian

Rebecca

I paid two pence for the

painting... (p. 17)

لﺎﺗــﺳﭘ ترﺎــﮐ یارــﺑ ﺞﻧــﭘ

ﯽھﺎــﺷ ... مدوــﺑ هداد لوــﭘ

.ص ،روﭘ ﺎﺑﯾﮑﺷ)28(

I paid old coin

equivalent to one-

twentieth of Rial for

the painting... (p.17)

Sense and

Sensibility

«But if you write a note to the

housekeeper, Mr Brandon,»

Said Marianne, eagerly «will

it not be sufficient?»

(p. 85)

ترارــﺣ و روﺷ ﺎﺑ نﺎﯾرﺎﻣ

:تﻔﮔ» رــﮔا ،نودﻧرﺑ یﺎﻗآ

یارــﺑ ﯽﺗــﺷاددﺎﯾرادﯾارــﺳ

؟تـــﺳﯾﻧ ﯽﻓﺎـــﮐ دﯾـــﺳﯾوﻧﺑ

.ص ،ﯽﯾﺎﺿر)75(

«But if you write a

note to the

caretaker

, Mr

Brandon,» Said

Marianne, eagerly

will it not be

sufficient?»

The Great

Gatsby

…«Amen to that» (p. 186)

« .تﺳا روطﻧﯾﻣھ نﯾﻣآ ن ا

ﷲ ﺎ ﺷ» .ص ،رﺎﺷﻓا)

349 (

…«Amen to that. If

God wills» (p. 186)

F. Mohammadpour, M. Shahnazar and M. Afrouz 123

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

Book

Back-Translation

from Persian

Rebecca

A soufflé was handed, and a

bowl of fruit salad. (p. 240)

دﻌﺑ سﯾورﺳ رد و ...

هوﯾﻣ و دﻻﺎﺳ یرادﻘﻣ

،روﭘﺎﺑﯾﮑﺷ) .دﻧدروآ396(

---, and a bowl of fruit

salad was handed.

Sense and

Sensibility

Ladies had passed near it on

their way along the valley, …

(p. 23)

--- ﯽﻣ هرد زا ﮫﮐ ﯽﻌﻗوﻣ

روﺑﻋ شرﺎﻧﮐ زا دﻧﺗﺷذﮔ

،ﯽﯾﺎﺿر) ... ،دﻧدوﺑ هرﮐ

.ص42 (

--- had passed near it

on their way along

the valley, …

The Great

Gatsby

Suddenly one of the gypsies

in trembling opal,… (p. 45)

نﯾا زا ﯽﮑﯾ نﺎﮭﮔﺎﻧ ﯽ ﻟ و ﮐ

جاوﻣ نھارﯾﭘ ﺎﺑ ﺎھ--- ... ،

.ص ،رﺎﺷﻓا)86 (

Suddenly one of the

gypsies in trembling -

---… (p. 45)

Table 12: Instances of Omission

The textual investigation of the translation agents'

translatorial habits is clearly interpreted using Venuti's notion of

domestication and foreignisation. In Liang’s (2010) view:

The procedure which tends towards the foreignisation end has a

stronger tendency of maintaining cultural otherness in the

translation, while the procedure which tends towards the

domestication end has a stronger tendency to replace the cultural

item with a target culture item or omitting the item without trace.

(Liang, 2010, p. 153)

As illustrated in Figure 1, transliteration, rendition, substitution, and

convention are oriented toward the foreignisation side of the continuum,

whereas extratextual addition, intratextual addition, cultural dilution,

naturalization, and omission are oriented toward the domestication side.

Figure 1 Tendency of translation procedures (Liang, 2016, p. 52)

124 Looking through The Lens of Bourdieu […]

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

3.2. Descriptive statistics of procedures for translating CSIs

The procedures for translating CSIs were realized and classified

appropriately. The frequency and percentages of the procedures employed

in pre-Cultural Revolution and post-Cultural Revolution versions of

translations of the three investigated books are presented in Table 13.

Table 13 contains descriptive statistics and the results of the Chi-

square test for the CSI translation strategies used by Iranian translators of

English romance novels before the Cultural Revolution, and each strategy

was compared in both eras.

Strategy

Era

Frequency

Percentage

Transliteration

Pre-CR

1109

25.90

Post-CR

1531

35.75

33.72

Rendition

Pre-CR

1762

41.15

Post-CR

2023

47.24

8.99

Substitution

Pre-CR

1.34

Post-CR

2.08

3.5

0.061

Convention

Pre-CR

0.16

Post-CR

0.19

0.03

0.862

Extratextual

Addition

Pre-CR

2.29

Post-CR

0.86

13.78

Intratextual

Addition

Pre-CR

538

12.56

Post-CR

1.48

187.7

Cultural

Dilution

Pre-CR

1.87

Post-CR

0.58

14.4

Naturalization

Pre-CR

544

12.7

Post-CR

495

11.56

1.15

0.28

F. Mohammadpour, M. Shahnazar and M. Afrouz 125

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

Omission

Pre-CR

2.03

Post-CR

0.26

29.46

Total

Pre-CR

4282

100

Post-CR

4282

100

Table 13: the descriptive statistics and the results of the Chi-square test for the

strategies of translating

Table 13 demonstrates that the most common procedure utilized in

both eras is rendition (47.24%). The second common one is a transliteration

(35.75%) whose percentage after the Cultural Revolution overtakes its use

before the Cultural Revolution. On the other side, naturalization and

intratextual addition which appear in the third and fourth position (12.7% and

12.56%, respectively) in the pre-Cultural Revolution-era go into a

considerable decline (11.56% and 1.48%, respectively) after the Cultural

Revolution. The least frequent procedures in both periods are convention

(0.16% and 0.19%) and Substitution (1.34% and 2.08%). The frequencies of

procedures grouped under foreignization (2935) are greater than those

procedures grouped under domestication (1347) before the Cultural

Revolution. This learning boosts in the post-Cultural-Revolution period (3651

and 631, respectively). As p < 0.05; therefore, the significant difference in

total strategies between the two eras is confirmed.

126 Looking through The Lens of Bourdieu […]

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

Figure 2: Translation procedures applied to all novels in pre- and post-Cultural

Revolution eras

Figure 2 depicts the evolution of translatorial habitus over two time

periods. It demonstrates a notable difference in transliteration, rendition,

intratextual addition, and naturalization. Furthermore, there is a growing

tendency among translators to foreignize their works. However, to get a

clear picture of the overall trends of procedures in each period, the overall

results are presented in a separate table.

Strategy Domestication Foreignization

Pre-Revolution 31.45% 68.55%

Post-Revolution 14.74% 85.26%

Table 14: Overall tendencies of translators of Pre-CR and Post- CR translation

procedures applied to all the novels

100

Pre-Revolution Post-Revolution

F. Mohammadpour, M. Shahnazar and M. Afrouz 127

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

4. INTERVIEWS’ ANALYSIS

Simeoni (1998, p. 31) highlights that «modern sociographies of single

translators’ professional trajectories are sorely lacking. The present void

could be filled out using simple interviews, without resorting to the heavy

apparatus of sample-based techniques.» Sapiro (2013, p. 63) reaches the

conclusion that «interviews provide rich qualitative data for reconstructing

translators’ social trajectories, their representations of their activity as

translators and the role that their translation activity plays in building their

identity.»

The collection of archived interviews printed in Motarjem [the

translator] journal and the other archived interviews in newspapers and

WebPages were investigated to make sure the translators' attitudes fit our

previous findings from the textual analysis of the corpus. Because

performing face-to-face interviews was impractical, this journal served as a

valuable source of interviews for the researchers.

In response to this question «Do you evaluate the translation process

as mechanical work or creative and artistic work? If you believe that the

translation is a creative work, do you think that the translator is authorized to

sacrifice some parts of the source text in the translation process?» Rezaei

answered:

The translation of such works [literary and philosophical texts]

requires creativity and art in addition to knowledge, cognition, and

skills are required. The translator of such texts is recreating the

text. In such a situation, creativity is the most important matter, and

if it is not the case, that translation will not be successful. The

translator should absorb the literary work and translate it into

Persian in the same way as the mood of the source text

is. This

process is a creative work, and in fact, the creative process is this.

(Rezaei, 2009)

As stated in the preceding interview, Rezaei considers translation to

be more than mere occupation or profession. For him, it is a creative writing

exercise in which it is critical not only to provide fluent translations of the

source text but also to stay close to the original text and preserve the cultural

values of the source text. The reader must also be aware that he is reading

a text from a different culture. This justifies the source-oriented trends

among Iranian translators, which confirms the textual analysis section's

findings.

Somewhere else, when he was asked «translation project that you

are involved in is a very tedious and time-consuming task and will take years

to be completed. Of course, it will cause you to lose the opportunity to

128 Looking through The Lens of Bourdieu […]

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

translate and introduce new world-famous works. How do you cope with

this?», Rezaei answered:

Naturally, whatever you do, you will achieve something and you

will lose something else. We have to choose.

I pursue prestigious

world awards and sometimes tempted to translate works…

(Rezaei, 2019)

According to the above interview, translators who are the social

agents of the literary field constantly struggle, based on the rules and

regularities of the specific field in which they are activating in, to succeed

and receive different kinds of capital they pursue. Here, Rezaei emphasizes

the importance of winning prestigious world awards and translating the new

world-famous works, taking into account the expectations of readers, which

proves that he recognizes the importance of gaining symbolic and cultural

capital along with the economic one.

Khazaee Farid (2016) affirms that:

However, he [Karim Emami] did not elaborate his opinion on the

translation of the above text [the translation of the Great Gatsby],

but it is clear from his hints that being faithful to the author's

language or style was very important to him, and intentionally he

has tried to keep himself within the scope of the author's

interpretations, even if some unfamiliar phrases and calques can

be found in his translation.

What is clear in Khazaee Farid's statement is the agency of Mr

Karim Emami as an excellent and capable translator in the field of translation

in Iran. He emphasizes that Karim Emami believes in conveying the main

meaning of the source text. This is consistent with the findings of the micro-

analysis section.

In response to «also the issue of censorship should be taken into

account if Iran joins Copyright Law. With the censorship of the book here, it

may not be possible to join this law.» Keyhan stated that:

Yes, that’s right. For example, Auster asked us about his book,

Invisible. We wrote him a letter saying that the translation of the

book has changed, because there is an unconventional

relationship in this book. We told him that we could not translate

such a relationship as it is found in the original book. So, we

removed those parts that clearly described the relationship. But by

reading the book, the main subject can be understood. Remember

that we did not bring it as it was in the original book, because we

were sure that the book would not be published (Keyhan, 2014)

F. Mohammadpour, M. Shahnazar and M. Afrouz 129

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

Kayhan’s explanation of preservation of the mood of the original text

also confirms the findings of the text of the present study. Her faithfulness to

the source text while translating, provided that the unconventional cultural

sections of the book are removed or changed, indicates that translators are

powerful enough to introduce new elements and a new culture to the readers

and they are eager to preserve the elements that they have introduced. On

the other hand, they are aware that power holders can intervene in the

publishing field and prevent publishing a book.

CONCLUSION

This study was undertaken to account for the translational behaviours

of Iranian translators in translating CSIs into English romance novels. The

first research question deals with determining collective behaviour in the CSI

translation procedures used by Iranian translators before the Cultural

Revolution. Concerning the number of translated literary books into Persian,

English has become a dominant source-text language for Persian

translations. The rise in the number of literary translations from Persian into

English, compared with Arabic, French and Germany, can be partly

explained by the context of globalization, though such an increase is not a

mechanical reflection of these conditions. This finding corroborates Sapiro’s

(2013, p. 62) study which showed that «During the era of globalization,

international cultural exchanges increased and the world book market

became more unified. This context created the conditions which favoured

the investment of various agents in the ‘exportation’ and ‘importation’…» It

appears that globalization in the field of cultural production and literary

translation has led Iranian translators to preserve the cultural elements of the

source text to play their role in the cultural transfer.

The second research question investigated whether there was any

collective behaviour in the strategies of translating CSIs utilized by the

Iranian translators of English romance novels in the post-Cultural Revolution

era. The evidence from this study implies that the dominant trend among the

Iranian translators of English romance novels in translating CSIs is

foreignization. The reason may be that translators as social agents are

always seeking to gain social capital through drawing on the social networks

of all agents involved in the field and the struggle for recognition in the field.

Moreover, an individual’s habitus is the result of «a complex product of

multiple processes of socialization in a variety of situations (family, school,

friends, work, neighbourhood, etc.). His/her dispositions to act and to think

are the result of an unstable interplay of a fragmented, plural and sometimes

even contradictory habitus» (Meylaerts, 2013, p. 107). It is in agreement with

what Gouanvic assumes «translation strategies are generally not to be

understood as deliberate choices, but rather concerning the translator’s

130 Looking through The Lens of Bourdieu […]

Hikma 21 (1) (2022), 107 - 134

habitus, which, together with that of other agents, structures the respective

field and, in turn, is structured by the field itself (Gouanvic, 2007, p. 86).

The third research question addressed if the collective behaviour of

Iranian translators in translating CSIs has changed before and after the

Cultural Revolution (the 1960s to 2010s). The results showed that the

foreignization tendency among Iranian translators in the post-Cultural

Revolution is greater when compared to the pre-Cultural Revolution. The

reason can be seen in the increasing efforts of Iranian translators to

recognize the repertoires inherited from their preceding generations and also

keep up with the changing translational norms in Iran’s history. This concurs

well with Hanna (2005) who assumes that «the trajectories of particular

translators can be identified by examining the positions they successively

occupy in the field of translation – their transition from one preferred genre to

another, shifts in translation strategies across time and genres, their

membership in adjacent fields (e.g., journalism, publishing) and shifts from

one medium to another.»

The present study has some limitations. The first one is the focus on

applying Bourdieu’s habitus only to translators. Therefore, further research

should be undertaken to investigate other social agents in the literary field,

i.e. writers, publishers, and editors. The second limitation has something to

do with the corpus of the study which consisted of romance novels

translated from English into Persian. It is recommended that future studies

entail studying different genres and different source languages. Given that

censorship and the policies of translation have constrained Iranian

translators, the research is needed to determine their influence on the

literary translation field in Iran.

REFERENCES

A. Alkhawaja, L. (2019). Habitus and Intellectual Trajectory in the

Translational Process: A Case Study. Al-Balqa Journal for Research

and Studies, 22 (1), 9-24. Available at:

https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/albalqa/vol22/iss1/1

Aixelá, J. (1996). Culture-Specific Items in Translation. In R. Alvarez, & M.

Vidal. (Eds.), Translation, Power, Subversion (pp. 52-78). Clevedon,

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