ISSN: 1579-9794

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

Are we teaching what they need? Going beyond

employability in Translation Studies

¿Estamos enseñando lo que necesitan? Más allá de la

empleabilidad en los Estudios de Traducción

PABLO SÁNCHEZ AYUSO

psayuso@gmail.com

Universidad de Granada

ARÍA DEL MAR HARO-SOLER

mmarharosoler@ugr.es

Universidad de Granada

ERCEDES GARCÍA DE QUESADA

gquesada@ugr.es

Universidad de Granada

Fecha de recepción: 30/03/2022

Fecha de aceptación: 27/06/2022

Abstract: As lecturers and researchers in translation and interpreting, we are

aware of the need to design curricula so that students are well equipped, and

able to respond to the requirements of modern society. In the world today,

there is an evident gap between what is actually taught in higher education

and what should be taught to meet student needs. Even though various

studies have already focused on the impact of constructs, such as self-

regulation, empathy, or creativity, on performance quality, there is still a long

way to go. In order to bridge this gap and highlight the role of the university as

a transformational agent, our study uses LifeComp, the European framework

for the personal, social, and learning to learn key competence. The objective

of this research was firstly to discover the transversal competences that are

most highly valued by employers in the language industry sector; and

secondly, to identify the competences that need more attention in curricula.

For this purpose, a questionnaire-based study was designed and

administered to translation companies based in Spain. The results obtained

indicate that these competences are necessary to foster employability as well

as real wealth creation in a lifelong learning context. This study is part of a

broader project within the LifeComp framework, in which a competence-based

psycho-educational intervention was designed and is now integrated in the

translation and interpreting degree programme at the University of Granada

(Spain).

322 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

Keywords: Competence-based learning, LifeComp, Curriculum design,

Higher education, Employability

Resumen: Como docentes e investigadores en el ámbito de la traducción e

interpretación, somos conscientes de la necesidad de diseñar los currículos

para que los estudiantes de traducción e interpretación estén preparados y,

como consecuencia, puedan responder a las necesidades de la sociedad.

Hoy en día, hay un amplio consenso sobre el desfase que existe entre lo que

se enseña y lo que debería enseñarse para satisfacer las necesidades del

estudiantado. Aunque hay algunos estudios que se han centrado en el

impacto que constructos como autorregulación, empatía o creatividad tienen

en la calidad del rendimiento, aún queda mucho por hacer en el entorno

universitario. Para poder solucionar esta situación y con la intención de

contribuir al papel que la universidad debe tener como agente transformador,

LifeComp, el marco europeo para las competencias clave personal, social y

aprender a aprender, se toma como base para (1) explorar cuáles son las

competencias transversales que los empleadores del sector de las industrias

de la lengua consideran más importantes y, como consecuencia, (2) detectar

cuáles son las que necesitan más atención en los currículos. Para este fin, se

diseña un estudio basado en cuestionarios que se distribuyen entre las

empresas de traducción con base en España. Las conclusiones de este

estudio apuntan a la necesidad de este tipo de competencias no solo para

mejorar la empleabilidad, sino para un crecimiento real en un contexto de

aprendizaje de por vida. Este estudio se inserta en un proyecto de mayor

envergadura en el que se ha diseñado una intervención psico-educativa

basada en el marco LifeComp que ha sido integrada en el currículo de los

estudios de Grado en Traducción e Interpretación de la Universidad de

Granada (España).

Palabras clave: Aprendizaje basado en competencias, LifeComp, Diseño

curricular, Educación superior, Empleabilidad

NTRODUCTION

COVID-19 has accelerated the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). The

current social transformation is now the source of unparalleled challenges.

Nevertheless, despite the immediate cost of the ‘double disruption’ of the

pandemic and increasing automation (WEF, 2021), there is also room for

opportunities for growth if we can acquire the necessary skills and are ready

to use them (Sala et al., 2020). This challenging context is also transforming

the labour market at an extraordinarily fast pace. Although many jobs have

been destroyed, new job profiles are also emerging (WEF, 2020a).

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 323

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

According to Burning Glass, one of the leading labour market analytics

firms, these new jobs, which are of extraordinary complexity, are growing at a

faster rate than those in the overall job market. They require a combination of

right-brain and left-brain thinking combined with highly technical knowledge.

However, they also involve more ‘human’ skills, such as collaboration,

creativity, and critical thinking, among others (Sigelman et al., 2019). We are

thus dealing with a new skill set (Arroyo, 2019) for an emerging professional

profile, defined by a rich combination of cognitive and non-cognitive

competences (Porcaro, 2021). Employers and society as a whole are currently

demanding people who have the potential for these soft skills as well as a

knowledge of hard skills (Khaouja et al., 2019; Frankiewicz and Chamorro-

Premuzic, 2020).

In academia, there is a general consensus that because of the rapidly

changing labour market, there is a gap between what is taught at university

and the skills actually required to meet the current demands of society (Chinn

et al., 2020). As a result, we are now witnessing a shift of focus from content-

based instruction and hard technical competences to a broader perspective

(Chatterjee and Duraiappah, 2020). Despite the current interest in developing

soft skills in formal and informal settings, they are still not explicitly taught in

the vast majority of degree programmes (Birtwistle and Wagenaar, 2020). In

fact, these extremely complex skills are deeply embedded in and shaped by

culture, social status, specific professions, and personal context, among other

factors (Hora et al., 2020).

In 2001, the Tuning project first identified this skills gap (Moore and

Morton, 2017) and showed that more generic and non-academic

competences, though critical for employability and overall wellbeing, were not

addressed in degree programmes (González and Wagenaar, 2003).

However, now 20 years later, the disconnect between what is taught and what

is needed in the labour market has become even more evident. As a result,

Higher Education institutions (HEIs) are frequently blamed for being detached

from the labour market and not preparing students for the professional world

(Balcar, 2014; Succi and Canovi, 2020).

HEIs will have to align curricula and research with the emerging

competence profiles. This change of paradigm is imperative for university

survival (Moscardini, Strachan and Vlasova, 2020, p. 11) and has been

highlighted in many research studies (Hora, Benvow and Smolarek, 2018;

Damianakis et al., 2019), and labour market reports (Sigelman et al., 2019). It

has also been included in the policy recommendations of many international

organisations (OECD, 2019a; WEF, 2020b). In the EU context, this growing

consensus on the need to equip citizens with the necessary skills for lifetime

employability and self-fulfilment has brought about a shift from the provision

324 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

of external expert support to individual growth with an emphasis on the

development and implementation of career adaptability as well as

management skills (Barnes et al., 2020, p. 4).

This study is the first step towards the development, promotion, and

assessment of lifelong learning skills in undergraduate studies in Arts and

Humanities. It provides insights from translation-related service providers,

based on the European framework for lifelong transversal competences,

LifeComp (Sala et al., 2020).

1. T

RANSVERSAL COMPETENCES AND THEIR TEACHING IN TRANSLATION AND

INTERPRETING PROGRAMMES

Although recent research has focused on transversal competences,

they are difficult to study and measure because of the many ways that they

can be classified and named (Succi, 2019; Succi and Canovi, 2020).

Following the recommendation of the National Agency for Quality

Assessment and Accreditation of Spain (ANECA) (2013), this paper calls such

competences «transversal competences» as defined within the ModEs

project:

[Transversal competences] represent a dynamic combination of

cognitive and meta-cognitive skills, interpersonal, intellectual, and

practical skills which help people to adapt and behave positively so

that they can deal effectively with the challenges of their professional

and everyday life. (Haselberger et al., 2012, p. 67)

Many HEIs are promoting specific training in these competences, which

can be acquired through formal, informal, and non-formal education (Seery,

Serbati and Yarosh, 2017). Some scholars and practitioners are even calling

for a shift of paradigm that challenges the status quo and encourages

education, rather than psycho-pedagogical programmes in education

(Sellman and Buttarazzi, 2019).

Within the context of Translation Studies, Rojo and Ramos (2016)

analyse how emotions can affect translation performance. Their study

measured the impact of positive feedback and constructive criticism, instead

of using corrective feedback and plain criticism. In this line, other authors

suggest moving from the notion of translator training to that of translator

education, where teachers are seen as facilitators of knowledge and

experience, who accompany students throughout the learning process (Haro-

Soler and Kiraly, 2019). For example, Haro Soler (2017, 2018a, 2018b) shows

how certain teaching practices can help students trust their own ability as

translators and thus foster their self-efficacy beliefs. Furthermore, Hubscher-

Davidson (2018) states that, given the potential for emotional involvement in

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 325

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

translation work, students should be taught how to control and cope with the

emotions they may encounter in the translation profession.

At a postgraduate level, the Competence Framework established by the

European Master’s in Translation (2017) already includes certain generic

skills, often referred to as «soft skills» that students should acquire, and which

will enhance graduate adaptability and employability. During their education,

translation students should learn how to plan and manage time, stress, and

workload. They should also be able to work in a team, develop collaborative

learning, and self-evaluate, among other skills.

However, recent studies have proved that some of these competences

are rarely included in undergraduate translation and interpreting degree

programmes. This means that all too frequently, curricula do not meet the

demands of the professional market. This results in a skills gap «between the

academic dimension of training and the actual requirements of employers»

(Álvarez-Álvarez and Arnáiz-Uzquiza, 2017, p.155). For precisely this reason,

certain scholars recommend that the Translation Studies curriculum should

include specific training in transversal or lifelong learning competences

(Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2017). Incorporating these competences in degree

curricula would help to bridge the «skills gap» (Moore and Morton, 2017) and

improve the employability of translation graduates.

2. L

IFECOMP: THE COMPETENCE REFERENCE FRAMEWORK OF THE EUROPEAN

UNION (EU) AND ITS RELEVANCE FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

Given the need for transversal competences, not to mention their key

role in the quickly changing global context, the Joint Research Centre (JRC)

in collaboration with the Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport, and

Culture (DG EAC) released a competence framework to cope with complexity,

uncertainty, and change in this global context (Caena, 2019). After an initial

period of desk research, framework design and stakeholder consultations,

LifeComp (the European Framework for PSLLC), was finally launched in

2020. Its aim was to identify the defining components of PSLLC and establish

a common language and logic for further development and flexible

implementation at different educational levels (Sala et al., 2020; Caena and

Stringher, 2020). LifeComp is closely linked to other European key

competence frameworks and probably constitutes the base on which they are

built, since LifeComp deals with the skills and competences that everyone

should learn, develop, and master in life (Sala et al., 2020).

LifeComp comprises nine teachable, interdependent, and culturally

shaped competences that are structured in the three areas outlined by the

2018 Council Recommendation: the Personal, Social, and Learning to Learn.

Each competence has been identified and validated by experts and

326 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

stakeholders and is further divided into three facets of development with the

following descriptors: awareness, understanding, and action. The importance

of the interdependence of these dynamic competences and the sociocultural

ecosystem of the individual is metaphorically represented as a tree with roots

(see Figure 1).

In the Key Competence framework model, not all competences are

equally classified. More specifically, some are categorised as attitudes or

values; others are envisaged as keys that unlock the rest; and still others are

classified as competence sets. This complexity aligns with new trends in

cognitive psychology and sociocultural constructivism (Caena, 2019), as well

as with new theories of wellbeing that go beyond individual, and mere life

satisfaction (Lambert et al., 2020). This complexity is also attuned to the

newest trends in positive psychology, where wellbeing is conceived as a

nuanced and culturally shaped approach to the notion of the positive and

negative that integrates both, in a fundamentally never-ending dialectical

nature of wellbeing (Lomas et al., 2020).

Figure 1: «LifeComp at a glance»

Source : Sala et al. (2020, p.9)

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 327

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

In the LifeComp framework, an interesting notion for scalable

competence-based curriculum design is that of core elements. A similar

approach can be found in OECD 2030 Learning Compass working papers

(OECD, 2019b) and defines a set of cross-cutting framework components that

are prerequisites for developing further framework areas (Caena, 2019).

Another insightful approach at LifeComp is the importance given to attitudes

(dispositions and orientations to actions

) and values (principles or standards

of behaviour, revealing one’s judgement of what is important in life

) in the

overall design of the framework with a focus on the overarching role of agency,

as a «powerful driver for individual and collective wellbeing» (Caena, 2019, p.

12). As a complement to competences, experts in Higher Education research

and practice are also envisaging attitudes and values as an important

ingredient of the competence model. This signifies moving away from the

more static model of knowledge and abilities to a more dynamic one, that

empowers individuals with more agentic possibilities (Birtwistle and

Wagenaar, 2020; Damianakis et al., 2019).

Even though transversal competences can be trained, developed, and

taught, they are also extremely complex (Hora et al., 2020). Though there

have been various initiatives in the European Union to close the gap between

academia and the skills currently demanded by society, there has been little

change in the learning paradigm in Higher Education (Wagenaar, 2021).

To the best of our knowledge, LifeComp has not yet been adapted to

Higher Education. Nevertheless, the implementation and evaluation of the

framework in diverse learning settings as well as feedback from different

education practitioners and researchers are now being encouraged. Recent

research has explored innovative teacher learning (Caena and Vuorikari,

2021), and a developmental model at all life stages (Caena and Stringer,

2020) within the LifeComp competence framework. In the context of university

studies, others have focused on the Learning to Learn competence though

without specifically using the LifeComp framework. For example, Gargallo et

al. (2020) studied the competence model from a theoretical perspective,

whereas Pérez Pérez et al. (2020) focused on its assessment.

3. UGRC

OMP: THE COMPETENCE-BASED PROGRAMME OF THE UNIVERSITY OF

GRANADA

A teaching innovation project was recently carried out at the University

of Granada (UGR) in consonance with the Council Recommendation on Key

Definition extracted from Sala et al. (2020, 19).

Definition extracted from http://data.europa.eu/esco/skill/A2.

328 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

Competences for Lifelong Learning

. This interdisciplinary project builds on

the groundwork laid in a previous one where two psycho-educational

interventions were designed and included in the Translation and Interpreting

degree programme. The methodology and protocol of the study were

registered at clinicaltrials.gov, the U.S. National Library of Medicine database

(Identifier NCT04392869) and its impact measured. According to preliminary

results, all experimental groups experienced improvements in all outcome

measures (e.g., emotion regulation, stress levels, and attention), despite the

fact that the course and the parallel study took place during the COVID-19

pandemic (Cásedas et al., 2022).

Encouraged by these results, UGRComp was created to scale up the

methodology and implant it in other degree programmes at the UGR. The idea

was to contribute to the existing work in competence-based learning studies.

Given the geopolitical context of the UGR, LifeComp was chosen as the

framework upon which to base curricular design (Sala et al., 2020). The 3

ECTS credit course targets the three core competences (Self-regulation,

Empathy and Growth Mindset). After it is implemented, its impact will be

measured in an experimental randomised parallel study, which has also been

registered at clinicaltrials.gov (Identifier NCT05598944). Reducing stress and

increasing resilience, improving concentration and academic achievement,

and developing self-regulation skills are some of the expected benefits of this

intervention.

The project has already been included in the core strategy of the UGR,

and its team is working closely with companies and start-ups to extend

competence-based research, training, learning, and accreditation beyond the

borders of higher education.

4. E

MPIRICAL STUDY: SURVEY ON THE TRANSLATION AGENCIES’ PERCEPTION

The basis for this empirical study was designed by one of the authors

as part of his final research project for the Degree in Translation and

Interpreting at the UGR within the framework of the teaching innovation project

UGRComp. The original aim was to contribute to help close the divide

between academia and the workplace (Section 2), based on the LifeComp

framework. The study pursues the following specific objectives:

• To identify the most important transversal competences for

companies in the translation and language services labour

market.

Council of the European Union (2018b). Council recommendation on key competences for

lifelong learning. Council of the European Union. 22 May 2018, Brussels. Available from:

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01)&rid=7

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 329

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

• To identify the transversal competences that professional

translators lack, according to translation and language-service

companies.

To achieve these objectives and collect the necessary data, a survey

was designed and subsequently administered.

4.1 Method

The online open-source tool, LimeSurvey, was used to publish, and

collect survey responses. The questionnaire was designed and definitions for

each competence were extracted from LifeComp framework. Since

competences may be defined differently depending on the individual or the

corporate/institutional culture (Cimatti, 2016), definitions were stated at the

very beginning in order to avoid misconceptions and align our study with

previous research as well as with previous work in LifeComp. The

questionnaire was subsequently validated by two experts in translator

education, transversal competences, and questionnaire design. When it was

distributed, Spain-based companies were asked to communicate any errors

or confusing questions to the main researcher of the UGRComp project and

co-author of this article (M. García de Quesada). Since no problems were

reported, the instrument was considered to be valid and the results obtained

to be useful and publishable (Vigier, 2010; Huertas-Barros, 2013).

The questionnaire included five sections:

- Section 1: presentation of the study. Following the recommendations

of Van Peer et al. (2012), the introductory section of our questionnaire

included general information about the aims of the study, the researchers

conducting it, and their respective institution(s). This was done without

releasing any information that could bias the results. Moreover, this first

section included instructions to help the respondents complete and save the

questionnaire.

- Section 2: consent form. The respondents were informed that their

answers would be anonymised and that the collective (not individual) results

would only be used for research purposes. They were also told that this study

would not involve any risk to their health, and that it would respect Regulation

(EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016

on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal

data and on the free movement of such data. At the end of this section, the

respondents who had agreed to participate in this study were asked to select

the option «I voluntary agree to participate» .

330 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

- Section 3: socio-demographic questions. The questions in this section

collected data pertaining to the company profile, such as years of activity, work

(exclusively translation and interpreting or related areas), the number of

translators in the company, and the number of registered branch offices.

- Section 4: most valued transversal competences. This section defined

each of the nine competences in the LifeComp framework. Moreover, to meet

the first specific objective of this study, this section included nine questions

(one for each competence) with four possible answers, ranging from 1 (not at

all important) to 4 (very important). Respondents were asked to indicate how

each transversal competence was valued in their company.

- Section 5: transversal competences that professional translators most

lack. In line with our second specific objective, respondents had to rank the

nine competences of LifeComp, by placing at the top of the list the

competence that professional translators were most deficient in, and which

would thus require greater attention in Higher Education. The competence in

ninth place was the one that they thought that translators tended to possess

or did not lack at all.

4.2 Sample

The questionnaire was distributed to Spain-based companies that

provide only translation services or translation in combination with other

language services. The Coordinator of the master’s degree in Professional

Translation at the UGR gave us the name and email of companies offering

internships to master’s students. We were thus able to contact 60 companies.

The email sent out described the study as well as the participating researchers

and included the link to the online survey. We also contacted ASETRAD, the

Spanish Association of Translators, Reviewers, and Interpreters. After

examining and approving the questionnaire, this association distributed it

among its members along with a description of the study and the link to the

questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed in April 2021.

A total of 91 companies agreed to participate. Although they were

initially asked to complete the questionnaire in two weeks, the deadline was

extended one week more to increase the number of participants. The sample

population of our study was finally composed of the 55 companies that

completed the questionnaire.

Of the participants, 54.5% exclusively offer translation and interpreting

services, whereas 45.5% also provide other services, such as accessibility (4

companies, 16%

); audio-visual productions and education on scenic arts (4

Of the agencies not operating in the translation and/or interpreting market alone.

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 331

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

companies, 16%); language and translation courses (4 companies, 16%);

technological services, such as automatic transcription (3 companies, 12%);

cooperation for development (2 companies, 8%); cultural promotion (2

companies, 8%); voice-over (2 companies, 8%); consultancy (1 company,

4%); and immigration (1 company, 4%). Another two companies (8%) only

specified that they perform other activities in the tertiary sector.

As shown in Figure 2, there was a high level of heterogeneity regarding

the years of activity of the companies participating in this study, though the

majority of them (94.55%) had been operating for more than 6 years.

Regarding size, the majority of the companies (40 companies, 72.7%)

have 1-5 either partial or full-time workers. In contrast, 5 companies (9.1%)

have 6-10 workers, and 21 (9.1%), 21 or more workers. Only 2 companies

(3.64%) have 11-15 workers, and 3 companies (5.45%), 16-20 workers. As

for branch offices, the numbers range from 1 branch office (36 companies,

65.45%) to more than 40 offices (3 companies, 5.45%).

Number of companies

Number of registered

branch offices

36 (65.45%)

6 (10.91%)

2 (3.64%)

1 (1.82%)

2 (3.64%)

1 (1.82%)

Figure 2: Graph of years of activity

332 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

1 (1.82%)

Table 1: Branch offices

4.3 Findings: What employers are looking for

In line with previous studies (Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2017; Schnell

and Rodríguez, 2017), the results obtained show that all the transversal

competences studied were considered to be quite or very important by the

vast majority of the respondents (see Table 2).

More specifically, as shown in Table 2, the three most important

competences according to the companies, were Communication (87.3%,

«very important» ), Collaboration (85.5%, «very important» ), and Flexibility

(83.6%, «very important» ). Critical Thinking was regarded as quite important

(30.9%) or very important (69.10%), and Managing Learning was classified by

94.5% of the respondents as quite important (23.6%) or very important

(70.9%). The remaining competences (i.e. Self-regulation, Well-being,

Empathy, and Growth Mindset), though important, had lower percentages for

the options «very important» and «quite important,» with some respondents

classifying them as «barely important».

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 333

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

Table 2: Importance given to transversal competences by companies

4.4. Findings: what is lacking

In Table 3, which ranks the competences that translators are lacking.

the top competence was weighted the highest (9) and the bottom-ranked

competence was weighted the lowest (1). The total sum obtained by each

competence is shown in the last row:

Competence

Not at all

important

Barely

important

Quite

important

Very

important

Mean

Self-regulation

(SR)

9.1%

49.10%

41.8%

3.33

Flexibility

(F)

16.4%

83.6%

3.84

Well-being

(WB)

7.3%

41.8%

50.9%

3.43

Empathy

(E)

5.5%

43.6%

50.9%

3.45

Communication

(Com.)

12.7%

87.3%

3.87

Collaboration

(Coll.)

14.5%

85.5%

3.85

Growth mindset

(GM)

5.5%

52.7%

41.8%

3.36

Critical thinking

(CT)

30.9%

69.1%

3.69

Managing

learning (ML)

5.5%

23.6%

70.9%

3.65

Com.

Coll.

(144)

6 (54) 2 (18) 5 (45) 7 (63) 6 (54) 5 (45) 4 (36) 4 (36)

10 (80) 9 (72) 8 (64) 6 (48) 3 (24) 5 (40) 5 (40) 6 (48) 3 (24)

8 (56) 10 (70) 9 (63) 6 (42) 5 (35) 7 (49) 3 (21) 5 (35) 2 (14)

4 (24) 8 (48) 9 (54) 7 (42) 8 (48) 3 (18) 8 (48) 4 (24) 4 (24)

334 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

Table 3. Transversal competences that translators lack the most

According to the companies, the competences that translators and

other language service providers tend to lack the most are Communication

(367), Flexibility (322), Collaboration (282), and Empathy (282). Strikingly, the

three transversal competences that companies regard as most important,

namely, Communication, Collaboration and Flexibility, are also the ones that

translation and other language service providers lack the most.

4.5. Discussion, limitations, and further research

The fact that Communication and Collaboration are considered to be

two of the most important transversal competences in the translation and

language services market coincides with translation competence models,

which highlight them as competences that all translators should master (Kelly,

2005; PACTE, 2005; EMT, 2017). Furthermore, Communication is one of the

competences that has received the most attention in translator education

(Atkinson and Crezee, 2014; Haro-Soler, 2018b; Way, 2009). Various studies

have also focused on Collaboration in translator education (Huertas-Barros,

2013; Kiraly, 2000, 2013).

This contrasts with Flexibility, which has not received the attention that

it deserves in translator education research and practice, despite the

importance given to it by the respondents. Given the lack of educational

initiatives on Flexibility in translation degree programmes, it is hardly

surprising that it is the second competence that translators lack the most. This

is further evidence of the gap between academia and the labour market. It

would thus be advisable to develop and/or adapt translation programmes and

initiatives so that this competence is an area of focus.

Despite the focus on Communication and Collaboration in translator

education research and practice, our results indicate that these two

competences, along with Flexibility, are the ones that translators and other

language service providers lack the most. It might be argued that since they

4 (20)

7 (35)

5 (25)

8 (40)

6 (30)

8 (40)

2 (10)

11 (55)

7 (28) 4 (16) 7 (28) 9 (36) 5 (20) 6 (24) 6 (24) 8 (32) 3 (12)

3 (9) 5 (15) 6 (18) 5 (15) 8 (24) 6 (18) 10 (30) 8 (24) 4 (12)

3 (6) 6 (12) 3 (6) 5 (10) 8 (16) 7 (14) 5 (10) 8 (16) 10 (20)

0 (0) 0 (0) 6 (6) 4 (4) 5 (5) 9 (9) 7 (7) 10 (10) 14 (14)

Total

sum

(367)

(322)

(282)

(265)

(256)

(255)

(235)

(211)

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 335

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

are so important in professional translation, this deficit is more glaringly

evident.

Nevertheless, our results for Communication and Collaboration also

underline the gap between academia and the world outside the classroom.

This may be due to the fact that the approaches used so far to help students

develop their communicative competence are not the most suitable ones and

that more effective initiatives, such as UGRComp, are needed.

As for Collaboration, although some studies have addressed

collaborative learning in translator education (Kiraly, 2000; Huertas-Barros,

2013; Haro-Soler, 2019), our results show that further attention and/or a

different approach may be needed. In this respect, the previously mentioned

studies suggest training students to work with others collaboratively and

effectively. They also propose that teachers be trained as guides or

supervisors of collaborative work so that they will know when to intervene to

facilitate effective collaboration among students.

Interestingly, Self-regulation, which is regarded as one of the least

important competences in the translation and other language services labour

market, is one of the competences that translators are most lacking. Quite

possibly, the presentation sequence of the questionnaires accounts for part of

the results. For Self-regulation to be regarded as important or desirable,

employers might need to first think of actual problems and their root. This is

perhaps due to the complex nature of competences or to the lack of

knowledge about their interdependence and scalability. The fact that Well-

being or Self-regulation are regarded as less important than Communication

or Collaboration could signal a lack of understanding of the value of

psychological capital (PsyCap) in the translation labour market, where

PsyCap is beneficial for the sustainability of the profession (Hubscher-

Davidson, 2020).

As for the limitations of this study, one of the most salient was the low

number and heterogeneous nature of the companies that fully completed the

survey. Though 91 translation companies initially agreed to participate in the

study, only 55 completed the questionnaire. These data were thus the only

ones that could be processed. Although the study was limited to Spain-based

companies, their profiles were very heterogeneous, especially in regard to

their size and the nature of their respective specialisations. Had the sample

been larger, a more refined analysis would have been possible, since all these

aspects would have been additional processing variables. For this reason this

study is envisaged as an exploratory work whose results and conclusions will

serve as a basis for a more in-depth research study not only in Spain but in

the European Higher Education Area (EHEA).

336 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

Still another limitation was the broad scope of the meaning of

transversal competences. Different agents often assign different meanings to

these competences depending on their socio-cultural and professional context

(Cimatti, 2016). For example, Empathy, for different sociocultural groups, can

have different meanings (Park and Yu, 2017), and its definition could even be

further refined, depending on the professional context activated (Holt et al.,

2017). Even within the language industry, Empathy in the field of Translation

and Interpreting (T&I) can have different shades of meaning (Rojo and

Ramos, 2016; Korpal and Jasielska, 2019).

Moreover, the importance attached to each competence may also vary

depending on the business culture of the company. To limit sociocultural

differences, the survey was only sent to Spain-based companies. Easy-to-

read definitions for each competence were taken from the LifeComp

framework and subsequently adapted to the context of Translation and

Interpreting. These definitions were validated, and respondents were asked to

report any errors or problems encountered. Since no issues were raised, the

definitions proposed were considered to be appropriate for the purposes of

our study.

Moreover, the complex nature of transversal competences means that

each competence behaves and interacts with the others differently.

Competences, such as Empathy and Self-regulation, have been classified as

core elements, i.e., prerequisites for developing other framework areas,

whereas others, such as Collaboration or Managing learning, are regarded as

compound competences, i.e., complex sets of competences (Caena, 2019, p.

17), which may bias the respondent’s choices. In this way, complex

interpersonal competences, such as Collaboration and Communication, may

be what the respondent thinks is lacking, whereas in reality, the deficit actually

lies in Self-regulation. In other words, dysfunctional self-regulation can cause

a communication failure and still go unnoticed by the respondent.

One might also think that the opinions expressed in the survey do not

correspond to the views of the company as a whole but rather to the views of

the individual that happened to receive the email and fill in the questionnaire.

To avoid this problem, there was an exploratory research phase in which

information was obtained regarding the person best suited for this task in each

company. This was accomplished, thanks to phone calls, emails, and

conversations with the Coordinator of the master’s degree in Professional

Translation, who kindly provided the authors with this information.

Nevertheless, any questionnaire-based study where respondents are asked

to express corporate views face this same challenge. Even though measures,

such as those in our study, reduce the bias, it is something that is impossible

to avoid.

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 337

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

A future course of action may include a mixed-method approach where

the quantitative data obtained from the questionnaire is triangulated with

qualitative data that permit a more in-depth understanding of the results. For

instance, this would shed light on the reasons why communication and

collaboration are two of the competences that translators lack the most

despite their prominence in translator education research and practice.

Another important issue is whether the traditional approach to translation

teaching is still the most appropriate. One might also ask whether translators

master specific components of these competences (for instance, teamwork),

but not others (for instance, provision of constructive feedback to peers). The

qualitative data collected to answer these and other questions could be

obtained by adding open-ended questions to the questionnaire or by recurring

to other techniques, such as structured interviews or focus groups. Another

interesting possibility for future research would be to analyse the

interdependence and scalability of competences and their relationship with

other components of LifeComp such as attitude and values. Furthermore, our

methodology could be used to explore the need for these competences in

other labour markets, and consequently, their inclusion in other undergraduate

programmes.

ONCLUSIONS

This paper offers valuable insights into the employers' view on which

skills are most relevant and necessary in the labour market, and which should

be given greater emphasis in higher education.

The results of the first block of questions show that all of the companies

considered the nine LifeComp competences to be fairly or very important.

However, a closer examination of the results reflects that Communication,

Collaboration and Flexibility were regarded as competences that all

translators should master. These three competences were followed by Critical

Thinking and Managing Learning. The remaining four competences (Self-

regulation, Wellbeing, Empathy and Growth Mindset) were the least favoured

in this first block of questions.

The second block of questions indicates that Communication and

Flexibility are the skills that are most lacking in the labour market and should

thus be given greater emphasis in translator training. Likewise, skills, such as

Collaboration, Empathy and Self-regulation, also highly considered by

companies, emerged as skills that professional translators tend to lack. These

results reinforce the conclusions derived from the first questionnaire, namely

that Communication and Collaboration are essential in translator training. The

lack of Flexibility ahead of Collaboration also deserves special attention, as

Flexibility has been proven to enhance team performance (Lacaranza et al.,

338 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

2018). It is also essential in the current global context, which is increasingly

uncertain, volatile, ambiguous, and complex (Bennett and Lemoine, 2014).

Strikingly, Communication, Collaboration, and Flexibility, the most

important competences for the companies, were those most lacking in the

workplace. This confirms the existence of a gap between academic institutions

and employers (Rodríguez Céspedes, 2017). This gap becomes even wider

when Communication and Collaboration, along with Critical Thinking and

Managing Learning, are regarded as compound competences (Caena, 2019,

p. 17), or broad-spectrum competences that encompass others. Accordingly,

since these broad-spectrum compasses are the most in demand, this means

that practically all of the others are as well since Wellbeing, Empathy, and

Self-regulation are also part of these compound compasses. In a teaching-

learning context, this could imply that the starting point of a competence

development scheme would be these core foundation competences (OECD,

2019b), instead of the complex ones identified by companies as most

important.

In our opinion, this and other studies on transversal competences are

key factors in university-business communication and should be decisive in

the design of any translation and interpreting degree programme. The

endeavour ahead is urgent. Even though competence-based interventions

have been found to be closely related to graduate employability (Rodríguez

de Céspedes, 2017; Schnell and Rodríguez, 2017) with a high impact on

social, cultural, and human capitals (Caballero, Álvarez-González and López-

Miguens, 2020), there is the need for a more ambitious objective than merely

equipping students with coping tools. The answer is not a «one size fits all»

solution to commodify and measure competences, attitudes, and values. Nor

is it only a question of perceiving employer demands, designing courses

tailored to meet the labour market needs, and thus creating a surplus of talent.

Our proposal transcends the concept of employability in terms of the

professional profiles that the labour market requires (Birtwistle and Wagenaar,

2020), and also includes the need to promote and nurture one’s personal,

social and physical wellbeing (Sala et al., 2020).

Our main goal is to develop, within the context of higher education, a

proactive response to the new society that is currently emerging. This

evidently signifies joining efforts to work collaboratively on the process rather

than on the result with a view to transforming research into tools that foster

real wealth creation in a lifelong learning context.

ISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 339

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Due to privacy and ethical restrictions, the data that supports the

findings of this study will be made available upon reasonable request.

CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Pamela Faber, from the Department of

Translation and Interpreting of the University of Granada (Spain), for

proofreading the final version of this paper.

EFERENCES

Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la Calidad y Acreditación. 2013. Libro

blanco del título de Grado en Traducción e Interpretación.

http://www.aneca.es/var/media/150288/libroblanco_traduc_def.pdf

Álvarez-Álvarez, S., and Arnáiz-Uzquiza, V. (2017). Translation and

interpreting graduates under construction: Do Spanish translation and

interpreting studies curricula answer the challenges of employability?

The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 11(2–3), 139–159.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399x.2017.1344812

Arroyo, J. (2019). Un currículum más allá del aula. El País. Retrieved 17

September 2020, from

https://elpais.com/sociedad/2019/10/13/actualidad/1570981445_1980

Atkinson, D. P., and Creeze, I. H. M. (2014). Improving psychological skill in

trainee interpreters. International Journal of Interpreter Education, 6(1),

3–18.

Balcar, J. (2014). Soft skills and their wage returns: overview of empirical

literature. Review of Economic Perspectives, 14(1), 3–15.

https://doi.org/10.2478/revecp-2014-0001

Barnes, S. A., Bimrose, J., Brown, A., Kettunen, J., and Vuorinen, R. (2020).

Lifelong guidance policy and practice in the EU: Trends, challenges and

opportunities: final report. Publications Office of the European Union.

http://dx.doi.org/10.2767/91185

Bennett, N., & Lemoine, G. J. (2014). What a difference a word makes:

Understanding threats to performance in a VUCA world. Business

Horizons, 57(3), 311-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2014.01.001

Birtwistle, T., and Wagenaar, R. (2020). Re-thinking an educational model

suitable for 21st century needs. In A. Curaj, L. Deca, and R. Pricopie

(Eds.), European Higher Education Area: Challenges for a New Decade

340 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

(pp. 465–482). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56316-

5_29

Caballero, G., Álvarez-González, P., and López-Miguens, M. J. (2020). How

to promote the employability capital of university students? Developing

and validating scales. Studies in Higher Education, 45(12), 2634–2652.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1807494

Caena, F. (2019). Developing a European framework for the personal, social

& learning to learn key competence (LifEComp). Literature review and

analysis of frameworks (Y. Punie, Ed.). Publications Office of the

European Union. https://doi.org/10.2760/172528

Caena, F., and Stringher, C. (2020). Hacia una nueva conceptualización del

Aprender a Aprender. Aula Abierta, 49(3), 199–216.

https://doi.org/10.17811/rifie.49.3.2020.199-216

Caena, F., and Vuorikari, R. (2021). Teacher learning and innovative

professional development through the lens of the personal, social, and

learning to learn European key competence. European Journal of

Teacher Education, 1–20.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2021.1951699

Cásedas, L. Funes, M. J., Ouillet, M, and García de Quesada, M. (2022).

Training transversal competences in a bachelor’s degree in translation

and interpreting: preliminary evidence from a clinical trial. The

Translator and Interpreter Trainer.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2022.2148964

Chatterjee Singh, N., and Duraiappah, A. K. (Eds.). (2020). Rethinking

learning: A review of social and emotional learning frameworks for

education systems. UNESCO MGIEP.

Chinn, D., Hieronimus, S., Kirchherr, J., and Klier, J. (2020). The future is now.

Closing the skills gap in Europe’s public sector.

https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/our-

insights/the-future-is-now-closing-the-skills-gap-in-europes-public-

sector

Cimatti, B. (2016). Definition, development, assessment of soft skills and their

role for the quality of organizations and enterprises. International

Journal for Quality Research 10(1), 97-130.

https://doi.org/10.18421/IJQR10.01-05

Damianakis, T., Barrett, B., Archer-Kuhn, B., Samson, P. L., Matin, S., and

Ahern, C. (2019). Transformative learning in graduate education:

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 341

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

Master of Social Work students’ experiences of personal and

professional learning. Studies in Higher Education, 45(9), 2011–2029.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1650735

European Council. (2018). Recommendation 22 May 2018 on Key

Competences for Lifelong Learning. European Council.

European Master’s in Translation. (2017). EMT Competence Framework

2017.

https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/emt_competence_fwk_201

7_en_web.pdf

Frankiewicz, B., and Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2020). Digital transformation is

about talent, not technology. Harvard Business Review.

https://hbr.org/2020/05/digital-transformation-is-about-talent-not-

technology

Gargallo López, B., Pérez-Pérez, C., García-García, F. J., Giménez Beut, J.

A., and Portillo Poblador, N. (2020). The skill of learning to learn at

university. Proposal for a theoretical model. Educación XXI, 23(1), 19–

44. https://doi.org/10.5944/educXX1.23367

González, J., and Wagenaar, R. (Eds.). (2003). Tuning educational structures

in Europe. Final report. Phase one. Deusto and Groningen.

http://tuningacademy.org/wp-

content/uploads/2014/02/TuningEUI_Final-Report_EN.pdf

Haselberger, D., Oberhuemer, P., Pérez, E., Cinque, M., and Capasso, F.

(2012). Mediating soft skills at higher education institutions: Guidelines

for the design of learning situations supporting soft skills achievement.

https://gea-college.si/wp-

content/uploads/2015/12/MODES_handbook_en.pdf

Haro-Soler, M. M. (2017). Teaching practices and translation students’ self-

efficacy: A qualitative study of teachers’ perceptions. Current Trends in

Translation Teaching and Learning E, 4, 198–228.

_____ (2018a). Las creencias de autoeficacia del estudiantado de traducción:

Una radiografía de su desarrollo. Doctoral dissertation, University of

Granada. http://digibug.ugr.es/handle/10481/53590

_____ (2018b). Self-confidence and its role in translator training: The

students’ perspective. In I. Lacruz and R. Jääskeläinen (Eds.),

Innovation and Expansion in Translation Process Research (pp. 131–

160). John Benjamins.

342 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

_____ (2019). La colaboración entre futuros traductores: Su impacto en las

creencias de autoeficacia para traducir. Mutatis Mutandis. Revista

Latinoamericana de Traducción, 12(2), 330–356.

https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.mut.v12n2a01

Haro-Soler, M. M., and Kiraly, D. (2019). Exploring self-efficacy beliefs in

symbiotic collaboration with students: An action research project. The

Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 13(3), 255–270.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399x.2019.1656405

Holt, S., Marques, J., Hu, J., and Wood, A. (2017). Cultivating empathy: New

perspectives on educating business leaders. Journal of Values-Based

Leadership, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.22543/0733.101.1173

Hora, M. T., Benbow, R. J., and Smolarek, B. B. (2018). Re-thinking soft skills

and student employability: A new paradigm for undergraduate

education. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 50(6), 30–37.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00091383.2018.1540819

Hora, M T., Newman, R.Y., Hemp, R., Brandon J., and Wu, Y. (2020).

Reframing Student Employability: From Commodifying the Self to

Supporting Student, Worker, and Societal Well-Being. Change: The

Magazine of Higher Learning, (52)1, 37-45.

http://doi.org/10.1080/00091383.2020.1693839

Hubscher-Davidson, S. (2018). Translation and emotion: a psychological

perspective. Routledge.

_____ (2020). The psychology of sustainability and psychological capital: New

lenses to examine well-being in the translation profession. European

Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 4(4).

Huertas-Barros, E. (2013). La competencia interpersonal en la formación de

traductores en España: Un estudio empírico-descriptivo del trabajo

colaborativo durante la primera etapa de formación en Traducción e

Interpretación. Doctoral dissertation, University of Granada.

Kelly, D. (2005). A handbook for translator trainers. Translation practices

explained. St. Jerome Publishing.

Khaouja, I., Mezzour, G., Carley, K. M., and Kassou, I. (2019). Building a soft

skill taxonomy from job openings. Social Network Analysis and Mining,

9(43). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-019-0583-9

Kiraly, D. (2000). A social constructivist approach to translator education.

Routledge.

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 343

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

_____ (2013). Towards a view of translator competence as an emergent

phenomenon: Thinking outside the box(es) in translator education. In

D. Kiraly, S. Hansen-Schirra, and K. Maksymski (Eds.), New prospects

and perspectives for educating language mediators (pp. 197–224).

Gunter Narr.

Korpal, P., and Jasielska, A. (2019). Investigating interpreters’ empathy: Are

emotions in simultaneous interpreting contagious? Target. International

Journal of Translation Studies, 31(1), 2–24.

Lacerenza, C. N., Marlow, S. L., Tannenbaum, S. I., and Salas, E. (2018).

Team development interventions: Evidence-based approaches for

improving teamwork. American Psychologist, 73(4), 517–531.

Lambert, L., Lomas, T., van de Weijer, M. P., Passmore, H. A., Joshanloo, M.,

Harter, J., Ishikawa, Y., Lai, A., Kitagawa, T., Chen, D., Kawakami, T.,

Miyata, H., and Diener, E. (2020). Towards a greater global

understanding of wellbeing: A proposal for a more inclusive measure.

International Journal of Wellbeing, 10(2), 1–18.

Lomas, T., Waters, L., Williams, P., Oades, L. G., and Kern, M. L. (2020).

Third wave positive psychology: broadening towards complexity. The

Journal of Positive Psychology, 1–15.

Moore, T., and Morton, J. (2017). The myth of job readiness? Written

communication, employability, and the ‘skills gap’ in Higher Education.

Studies in Higher Education, 42(3), 591–609.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1067602

Moscardini, A. O., Strachan, R., and Vlasova, T. (2020). The role of

universities in modern society. Studies in Higher Education, 1–19.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1807493

OECD. (2019a). OECD Skills Strategy 2019. Skills to shape a better future.

OECD Publishing.

OECD. (2019b). OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030. Conceptual

learning framework. Concept note: OECD learning compass 2030.

OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-

project/teaching-and-learning/learning/learning-compass-

2030/OECD_Learning_Compass_2030_concept_note.pdf

PACTE. (2005). Primeros resultados de un experimento sobre la competencia

traductora. In M. L. Romana (Coord.), Actas del II Congreso

Internacional de la AIETI. Información y documentación. (pp. 537–587).

Universidad Pontificia Comillas.

344 Are we teaching what they need? […]

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

Park, S., and Yu, J. (2017). The effects of multicultural experience on empathy

in adolescents: Focused on mediating effect of multicultural acceptance

and cultural empathy. Journal of Digital Convergence, 15(4), 499–510.

Pérez Pérez, C., García García, F. J., Vázquez Verdera, V., García Félix, E.,

and Riquelme Soto, V. (2020). La competencia «aprender a aprender»

en los grados universitarios. Aula Abierta, 49(3), 309–323.

https://doi.org/10.17811/rifie.49.3.2020.309-323

Porcaro, G. (Host). (2021). The skills of the future. What challenges and

opportunities does technology bring to the labour market? [Podcast

episode]. In The sound of economics. Bruegel.

Rodríguez De Céspedes, B. (2017). Addressing employability and enterprise

responsibilities in the translation curriculum. The Interpreter and

Translator Trainer, 11(2–3), 107–122.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399x.2017.1344816

Rojo López, A., and Ramos Caro, M. (2016). Can emotion stir translation skill?

In R. Muñoz Martín (Ed.), Reembedding translation process research

(pp. 107–140). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/btl.128.06roj

Sala, A., Punie, Y., Garkov, V. and Cabrera Giraldez, M. (2020). LifeComp:

The European framework for personal, social, and learning to learn key

competence. Publications Office of the European Union.

Schnell, B., and Rodríguez, N. (2017). Ivory tower vs. workplace reality. The

Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 11(2–3), 160–186.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399x.2017.1344920

Seery, A., Serbati, A., and Yarosh, M. (Eds.). (2021). Developing generic

competences outside the university classroom. University of Granada.

Sellman, E., and Buttarazzi, G. (2020). Adding Lemon juice to poison–raising

critical questions about the oxymoronic nature of mindfulness in

education and its future direction. British Journal of Educational

Studies, 68(1), 61-78.

Sigelman, M., Bittle, S., Markow, W., and Francis, B. (2019). The hybrid job

economy: How new skills are rewriting the DNA of the job market.

Burning Glass Technologies.

Succi, C. (2019). Are you ready to find a job? Ranking of a list of soft skills to

enhance graduates’ employability. International Journal of Human

Resources Development and Management, 19(3), 281–297.

P. Sánchez Ayuso, M.ª del Mar Haro Soler y M. García de Quesada 345

Hikma 21 (2) (2022), 321 - 345

Succi, C., and Canovi, M. (2020). Soft skills to enhance graduate

employability: comparing students and employers’ perceptions. Studies

in Higher Education, 45(9), 1834–1847.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1585420

Van Peer, W., Hakemulder, F. and Zyngier, S. (2012). Scientific Methods for

the Humanities. John Benjamins.

Vigier Moreno, F. J. (2010). El nombramiento de traductores-intérpretes

jurados de inglés mediante acreditación académica: Descripción de la

formación específica y del grado de satisfacción de los egresados.

Doctoral Dissertation, University of Granada.

Wagenaar, R. (2021). Evidencing competence in a challenging world.

European higher education initiatives to define, measure and compare

learning. International Journal of Chinese Education, 10(1).

https://doi.org/10.1177/22125868211006928

Way, C. (2009). Bringing professional practices into translation classrooms. In

I. Kemble (Ed.), The changing face of translation (pp. 131–142).

University of Portsmouth.

World Economic Forum. (2020a). The future of jobs report 2020. World

Economic Forum.

World Economic Forum. (2020b). The reskilling revolution: Better skills, better

jobs, better education for a billion people by 2030. World Economic

Forum.

World Economic Forum. (2021). The global risks report 2021. World Economic

Forum.