ISSN: 1579-9794

Hikma 22(1) (2023), 123 - 141

Towards the acquisition of strategic competence in

translator training: stepping into the translator trainees’

shoes (II)

Hacia la adquisición de la competencia estratégica en la

formación de traductores: en los zapatos del traductor en

formación (II)

ANA GREGORIO CANO

anagregoriocano@gmail.com

Universidad de Granada

Fecha de recepción: 15/05/2022

Fecha de aceptación: 23/02/2023

Abstract: Unravelling the complex process of acquiring Translator

Competence (TC) is a considerable challenge. Whilst TC has been

considered fundamental to translator training, research, and training have

often been limited to theoretical reflections, without including empirical input.

In this proposal, we will try to fill a gap in the empirical studies that have been

performed to date on TC and the analysis of its acquisition in real teaching

practice. We offer the reader an in-depth review of key issues for the training

of translators before presenting the empirical study. In the first part, we place

the reader in the context in which the study is framed, dealing with basic

concepts such as TC. This paper summarizes essential ideas before exploring

the question of TC acquisition, and particularly into strategic competence

(SC). In the second part, we describe the quantitative and qualitative

methodology of the empirical study. The longitudinal study, presented,

includes a group of 37 subjects, allowing greater depth in the analysis of the

processes of the acquisition of SC. Finally, we present our conclusions. Our

results shed light on key issues for the development of theory and practice to

facilitate advances in the training of translators.

Keywords: Translator training, Empirical approach, Translator competence,

Strategic competence, Longitudinal study

Resumen: Desenmarañar el complejo proceso de la adquisición de la

competencia traductora (CT) es un desafío considerable. Si bien la CT resulta

fundamental para la formación de traductores, la investigación y la formación

a menudo se han limitado a reflexiones teóricas, sin incluir estudios

empíricos. Con nuestra propuesta intentamos llenar un vacío en lo que

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Hikma 22(1) (2023), 123 - 141

respecta a los estudios empíricos que se han realizado hasta la fecha sobre

CT y el análisis de su adquisición en la práctica docente real. Ofrecemos al

lector una revisión en profundidad de cuestiones claves para la formación de

traductores antes de adentrarse en el estudio empírico. En la primera parte,

situamos al lector en el contexto en el que se enmarca el estudio, tratando

conceptos básicos como la CT. Nuestra propuesta resume las ideas

esenciales para profundizar en la cuestión de la adquisición de la CT y, en

particular, en la competencia estratégica (CE). En la segunda parte,

describimos la metodología del estudio empírico de carácter cuantitativo y

cualitativo. El estudio longitudinal presentado comprende un grupo de 37

sujetos, lo que permite un análisis en mayor profundidad de los procesos de

adquisición de la competencia estratégica. Finalmente, presentamos las

conclusiones. Con nuestra propuesta, esperamos arrojar luz sobre temas

clave para el desarrollo de la teoría y la práctica en la formación de

traductores.

Palabras clave: Formación de traductores, Aproximación empírica,

Competencia traductora, Competencia estratégica, Estudio longitudinal

INTRODUCTION

Translator training is booming all over the world, with a growing demand

for translators in all fields and imaginable language combinations (European

Commission, 2018; Way, 2020; Guerberof Arenas, 2020). New

undergraduate and graduate programs are constantly being created (Kelly,

2017; Massey et al., 2019; Hong and Galán-Mañas, 2022). Spain has been a

leading country in the development of translator training and translation

pedagogy (Way, 2022, p. 87): some of the best-known TC models (Hurtado,

2001[2011], 2017; Kelly, 2002, 2005, 2007) emerged there.

The concept of competence is key in the context advocated by the

European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and, also in the discipline of

translation, where the study of competences preceded the EHEA (Gregorio

Cano, 2014). In fact, the study of competences has been one of the

methodological aspects that has most concerned TI scholars (García

Izquierdo, 2012, p. 29). The general research objective of the study presented

here is to observe and analyse the repercussions of an undergraduate

translation degree course in the development of TC. Using empirical methods

that combine quantitative and qualitative analysis, relying on a longitudinal

study of 37 students, the research focuses on the development of SC and,

particularly the students’ capacity to identify translation problems (Muñoz

Martín, 2014, p. 9). In line with Kiraly (2013, p. 222) and Massey and Brändli

(2016, p. 177), we believe small-scale qualitative case studies are a viable

tool to help us understand better how TC grows (Kiraly and Massey, 2019).

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This research is the continuation of a larger-scale study (with more than

1,000 subjects from 5 Spanish TI Schools) previously presented in Gregorio

Cano (2018, 2020). Our objective is to discover whether the Translation and

Interpreting Degree (TID) enhances the development of TC and, particularly,

of SC. Furthermore, four hypotheses were formulated in order to be tested

against the students’ answers: (1) TI students about to finalize their degree

are capable of recognizing more translation problems than TI students

beginning their degree, (2) TI students about to complete their degree are able

to recognize and differentiate between different translation problems better

than TI students beginning their degree; (3) the capacity for abstraction of TI

students when identifying translation problems is greater on completing their

TID than at the beginning; and, (4) the richness of the metalanguage used by

the TI students evolves from the beginning of their TID until they complete

their TID.

There have been many definitions of translation from different

perspectives that have been formulated over the years: those that focus on

translation as an activity between languages, others as a process, those that

affect the textual aspect, etc. In our research, translation is conceived as an

activity whose backbone is problem-solving:

Translation is an intelligent activity, requiring creative problem-

solving in novel textual, social, and cultural conditions. As we have

seen, this intelligent activity is sometimes very conscious; most of

the time it is subconscious, "beneath" our conscious awareness. It

is no less intelligent when we are not aware of it — no less creative,

and no less analytical. This is not a "mystical" model of translation.

The sublimated intelligence that makes it possible for us to translate

rapidly, reliably, and enjoyably is the product of learning — which is

to say, of experience stored in memory in ways that enable its

effective recall and flexible and versatile use. (Robinson,

1997[2003], p. 50)

Translation requires the development of a specific competence, which

leads trainees towards expertise, identifies the translator, and distinguishes

him/her from the non-translator: translation competence. This competence is

consciously and unconsciously developed thanks to many factors, (Hurtado,

2015; Kiraly et al., 2018, p. 21), such as the training received in TI studies, a

premise that is the starting point for the empirical research presented here.

1. TRANSLATOR COMPETENCE

The term "translator competence" began to be used in the mid-1980s,

and many authors have alluded to it. The terminological disparity in English to

refer to the concept of TC is evident: translational [translatory] competence

(Wilss, 1976[1982]), translation competence (Toury, 1984; Nord, 1991[2005];

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Hewson and Martin, 1991; Neubert and Shreve, 1992; Campbell, 1998;

Vienne, 2000; PACTE, 2000, 2008, 2011; González-Davies and Scott-

Tennent, 2005), translational skill (Lowe, 1987), translator competence (Bell,

1991; Kiraly, 1995, 2000, 2013; Kelly, 2000, 2005; Risku et al., 2010; Hansen,

2013), translational competence (Pym, 1992; Neubert, 1994), components of

translation expertise (Gile, 1995[2009]), translator abilities (Hatim and Mason,

1997). However, despite the diversity of denominations, there is a certain

consensus regarding what the concept encompasses, in terms of its content,

but not in terms of its acquisition (Marco, 2004; Hurtado, 2001[2011]; Kiraly,

2013).

Throughout this research, TC is defined as "the set of abilities, skills,

knowledge, and attitudes necessary to translate, for which it is essential to

develop the ability to recognize translation problems and the strategies to

solve these problems” (Gregorio Cano, 2014). TC development should form a

fundamental part of translator education programs (Kiraly et al., 2018, p. 21).

TC is broken down into a series of components (sub-competences or

competences) that are interrelated, which may overlap and develop at

different speeds for different trainees (Way, 2022, p. 88), where SC acts as

the backbone of TC (Kelly, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2007; PACTE, 2000, 2001a,

2001b, 2003, 2007).

1.1. Strategic competence

After an exhaustive review of translation competence models (for an

overview see Göpferich 2019), in this proposal the models taken as reference

are PACTE (1998, 2000, 2001a, 2001b, 2003, 2007) and Kelly (1999, 2002,

2005, 2007) because they are, in our opinion, the most complete. They include

the strategic component as a regulatory agent of the other competences that

come into play in the translation process. Throughout the review of TC

models, despite the terminological variety, various authors include SC among

the components of TC, namely: strategic competence (PACTE, 1998, 2000,

2001a, 2001b, 2003, 2007; Kelly, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2007; Göpferich, 2007,

2009), transfer competence (Hewson and Martin, 1991; Hansen, 1997;

Neubert, 2000; González-Davies, 2004), translation competence (Neubert,

2000), strategic transfer competence (Katan, 2008), problem-solving ability

(Presas, 1996, 1998, 2008), or problem-solving competence (Herold, 2010).

For this research, Kelly’s (2002) definition of SC is adopted, namely:

“[that which] comprises all the procedures that are applied to the organization

and performance of work, to the identification and solving of problems, and

self-assessment and revision” (Kelly, 2002, p. 15).

The strategic sub-competence (Hurtado, 2001[2011], pp. 396-397)

encompasses operational knowledge to guarantee the effectiveness of the

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translation process and solve the problems encountered in its development.

Moreover, according to Hurtado (2001[2011], p. 397), SC is the most

important as it has a regulating and compensatory role for the rest of the

sub-competences, which interact when translating and establishes

hierarchical relationships between them. Therefore, the strategic sub-

competence has to remedy the possible deficiencies of the hierarchical

relationships between the other sub-competences and also serves to solve

(translation) problems.

For our empirical study, the raising of awareness of students in order to

recognize translation problems will be taken as a way of acknowledging the

development of SC (Roiss and Zimmermann, 2010, p. 303).

2. MOVING A STEP FORWARD: FROM A THEORETICAL TO AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH

This research is framed within the discipline of translation and

interpreting studies

, and more specifically within translation pedagogy.

2.1 Study design

The empirical research presented is not experimental in nature, as we

work with facts of direct experience that are not manipulated in order to

describe and analyse the impact of the TI program from the University of

Granada on the development of SC and, in particular, on students’ ability to

identify translation problems through an empirical study. Therefore, our design

aims to identify, analyse, and describe trends based on the students’

responses.

The instrument

used to gather data for the research study (Gregorio

Cano, 2020) was designed to be completed on paper and consisted of two

parts. In the first part, the focus was on sociodemographic data and the

second part included a pre-translation task (García Izquierdo, 2000, 2012;

Elena, 2011; Roiss, 2006a, 2006b) with open questions related to it where the

students were asked to include 5 translation problems they might have

identified (La Rocca, 2007).

In line with Grotjahn (1987, pp. 59-60) and Sierra (1998, pp. 33-37) the

principal characteristics of the research presented here are the following:

• The study is non-experimental, and the instrument is completed

in an uncontrolled and unmanipulated situation. There is no

control of the subjects’ experiences so as not to condition their

responses. The research design identifies, describes, and

This research was framed within the research project R&D funded by the Spanish Ministry of

Education and Science, under the direction, as lead researcher, of Dr. Kelly.

The instrument is available at http://bitly.ws/yJRx

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analyses tendencies of an educational reality as experienced

by the subjects, who are students.

• The data are quantitative and qualitative. The mixed research

method

is due to the nature of the research object itself. Thus,

in this study a combination of quantitative and qualitative data

was chosen, where the latter reinforce the meaning of the

purely quantitative data.

• The data analysis performed is interpretative and statistical.

The TID students are the protagonists of the research. It is

through their perceptions and experiences that the research

objectives are fulfilled. The importance of the statistical-

interpretative combination is due to the intention of

substantiating the description of the educational reality through

the protagonists themselves. Hence, the qualitative data are of

vital relevance because they facilitate the interpretation of the

object of study, expressed in the students’ own words.

• The temporal scope of the empirical study has a double

approach: a series of sectional data, referring to a unique

moment in time (Gregorio Cano, 2020) and the longitudinal

study, presented, which follows the progress of a group of

students (García Ferrando, 2005, p. 180; Sierra, 1998, p. 179).

The possibility of studying the same group of students in the longitudinal

study has allowed us to formulate a series of hypotheses (one general and

four specific) in order to facilitate the research process and to reach more

concrete conclusions.

The general hypothesis of our longitudinal study was that training in TS

enhances the development of TC and particularly of SC. The four specific

hypotheses were:

1. TI students about to finalize their degree are capable of recognizing

more translation problems than TI students beginning their degree.

2. The TI students about to complete their degree are able to recognize

and differentiate between different translation problems better than TI

students beginning their degree.

3. The capacity for abstraction of TI students when identifying translation

problems is greater on completing their TID than at the beginning.

Neither of the data recovery techniques is better than the other, there are, however, techniques

which better suit the needs of different research studies.

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4. The richness of the metalanguage used by the TI students evolves

from the beginning of their TID until they complete their TID.

2.2. Mapping the participants’ profile of the sample

The inclusion criteria for the participants respond to our objectives,

which is why the sample consists of first-year students that had just started

their TI studies and fourth-year students who were about to graduate (4th

year) at the School of Translation and Interpreting at University of Granada in

Spain.

The students’ responses show that the majority of our sample (37

students)

tend to access the TID directly after secondary education, as in the

macro-study (Gregorio Cano, 2020). Therefore, their average age ranges from

17 to 20, although there is one student in the longitudinal study who was

between 21 and 24 at access. The fourth-year research subjects are within

age ranges of four more years.

The sample shows a majority of women (73%) compared to 27% who

are men.

None of the subjects had a prior degree before studying the TID, as

expected, given their age range. Nor does the only subject aged between 21

and 24 in the first-year group (and between 25 and 28 in fourth-year) hold a

prior degree.

Our longitudinal study covers three of the four B languages offered in

the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting (FTI) at the University of Granada,

as none of the students in Arabic completed our instrument in both the first

and fourth years.

Several students changed their C language during their TID studies. In

other words, they started studying one language combination and changed to

another by changing their C language. For example, in the first-year, their C

language was French, a language they had studied for between six and nine

years and for which they stated that they had an intermediate linguistic and

cultural competence. In the fourth-year, however, their C language was

German, for which they considered that, after three to five years of study, they

had an elementary cultural and linguistic level.

It is also interesting to see that some students neglected their C

language, possibly due to the curriculum design, as the students must follow

4 compulsory levels of C language in the first and second years, C language

area studies in second year and, finally, two C-A translation courses on the

In order to see the individual and detailed profiles of the sample, see Gregorio Cano (2018).

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third and fourth-year of the degree. Once students have completed these

credits, they are not obliged to take any other courses for their C language.

This reduces the time invested in their C languages, which may be why some

of the students’ perceptions of their C language linguistic and/or cultural

competence levels do not go beyond elementary or intermediate, depending

on the case.

Having reviewed the students’ profiles, it seems that their perceptions

of the different levels (native speaker, advanced, intermediate, beginner or

inexistent) depends on the demands of each student There is no clear

tendency concerning how the working languages are acquired. The students’

profiles show that the most common perception of their B language in the first-

year is an intermediate level, although many of the subjects have spent less

than one month in their B language country(ies). Furthermore, we also find

that when the students’ C language is English, the perception of their linguistic

and cultural levels is higher than for other C languages. This may be due to

the wider offer of French and English as foreign languages in secondary

education in Spain.

One of the subjects in our longitudinal study stated that she was a native

speaker of her B language (German), a profile which is increasingly less

common in first-year students.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section presents, the quantitative results of our study, depending

on the hypothesis.

3.1. Hypothesis 1

TI students about to complete their degree are capable of recognizing

more translation problems than TI students beginning their degree. The

results of our longitudinal study refute this hypothesis (only 37.8% of the

students’ show a positive evolution between the first and fourth years).

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Graphic 1. Results for hypothesis 1

Source. Elaborated by the author

3.2. Hypothesis 2

TI students about to complete their degree are able to recognize and

differentiate between different translation problems better than TI students

beginning their degree. Our results neither refute nor confirm this hypothesis,

as the percentage of students who show an evolution (48.6%) barely varies

from the percentage of those who don’t (51.4%). In general, the students who

progress over the four years of the TID in recognizing more translation

problems are those who also learn how to recognize and differentiate between

different types of translation problems (14 cases).

Graphic 2. Results for hypothesis 2

Source. Elaborated by the author

37,8

62,2

48,6

51,4

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3.3. Hypothesis 3

The capacity for abstraction of TI students when identifying translation

problems is greater on completing their TID than at the beginning. Our third

hypothesis is also refuted, based on the results of our longitudinal study (only

5.4% of the subjects show a positive evolution in this regard between the first

and fourth years).

Graphic 3. Results for hypothesis 3

Source. Elaborated by the author

3.4. Hypothesis 4

The richness of the metalanguage used by the TI students evolves from

the beginning of their TID until they complete their TID. This is the only one of

the four hypotheses to be confirmed, where 59.5% of the subjects show a

positive evolution in the richness of their metalanguage (Gregorio Cano,

2017).

5,4

94,6

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Graphic 4. Results for hypothesis 4

Source. Elaborated by the author

4. DISCUSSION

The data and results in this proposal are extracted from the students’

replies to the questionnaire and the pre-translation task they were set.

Therefore, there might be some bias in the answers provided due to the

specificities of the students’ profiles. The general hypothesis for our

longitudinal study, training in TS enhances the development of TC and,

particularly, of SC”, was not confirmed. In fact, of the 37 students in our

longitudinal study, only two positively evolved from the first to the fourth year

in the four parameters established to measure the development of SC through

their ability to identify translation problems.

Only the fourth specific hypotheses have been confirmed, as explained

below.

In the longitudinal study, the majority of the students (23) showed no

progress in identifying more translation problems between their first and fourth

years, whereas, whilst 14 did.

In regard to the types of translation problems identified, 19 students

showed no progress, compared to the 18 students who did.

The level of abstraction when identifying translation problems in the

responses given between the first and fourth-year progressed in only 2 of the

37 subjects in the longitudinal study.

In reference to the metalanguage used to describe the different

translation problems in the pre-translation text analysis (Gregorio Cano,

59,5

40,5

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2020), 22 subjects responded that they had a better grasp of it, as compared

to 15 subjects who said that there had been no progress since their first year.

In the parameters studied in order to identify the factors that enhance

the development of SC, no highly significant tendency was detected for any

of the four parameters studied.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

With the implementation of new undergraduate degree courses and the

EHEA in Spanish universities, pedagogy and training the trainers have

become increasingly relevant. We believe that the investment in research on

training is vital both to improve the quality of the training received by the

students and for the lecturers (Kiraly et al., 2018; Massey, 2019; Way, 2020;

Horcas, 2023) responsible for training future translators, reviewers,

international commercial agents, teachers/lecturers, cultural mediators,

project managers, etc. The importance of competence-based translator

training is essential, and many authors have researched the components of

translator competence (Wilss, 1976[1982]; Nord, 1991[2005]; Pym, 1992;

Gile, 1995[2009]; PACTE, 2001a, 2001b; Kelly, 2000, 2005) and the agents

that intervene in its development. Despite the variety of research available on

TC, it is still a challenging object of study due to the complexity involved in

verifying how it is developed as a product of the training received after

completing a university degree. Thus, our research helps to fill the vacuum

that exists on the process of developing TC.

The description of TC is key in translator training, it is a central concept

in the development of the different activities and learning objectives in the

training programs for future translators. For all of the above, the definition of

TC, as well as the identification of the factors that intervene in its development,

are of the utmost importance.

Because Translation Pedagogy is a very applied, hands-on discipline,

it is still quite scarce in the development of research projects on the training

of future translators, interpreters, and intercultural mediators.

The macro-study (Gregorio Cano, 2020) and longitudinal study results

show no patterns for the development of SC. In fact, it appears that the greater

or lesser development of this competence depends more on ad hoc individual

characteristics that may be related to (individual) learning styles, than on the

(plural) teaching approaches (Kiraly et al., 2018; Massey, 2019; Way, 2020;

Horcas, 2023) which dominate the TID, as the longitudinal study of a group of

students trained in one faculty (School of Translation and Interpreting,

University of Granada) and who share similar profiles demonstrates.

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This leads us to ask ourselves whether the TID significantly affects the

development of SC, and if so, it is necessary to discover which factors do have

the greatest impact. Our results indicate possible causes for the lack of

common tendencies amongst the students of the same TID faculty: (1) the

lack of consensus about the teaching-learning process for identifying

translation problems in university translator training in the TI School where the

research was carried out; and, (2) within TS as a discipline, the lack of

consensus when defining TC and how it should be measured.

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