ISSN: 1579-9794
Hikma 23(1) (2024), 231 - 251
Around the World in A Click: A Reflection on Translation
Quality in Tourism Promotion
La vuelta al mundo en un clic: reflexiones sobre calidad en
la traducción de promoción turística
ADRIÁN FUENTES-LUQUE
afuentes@upo.es
Universidad Pablo de Olavide
M
ARÍA CRISTINA VALDÉS RODRÍGUEZ
cris@uniovi.es
Universidad de Oviedo
Fecha de recepción: 10/04/2023
Fecha de aceptación: 23/10/2023
Abstract: Quality tourism means quality products. Much of the tourist content
is translated. Therefore, quality translations are necessary to ensure positive
levels of tourist satisfaction. The differentiation of a brand is achieved through
the perceived image (Andreu et al., 2000, p. 49). There are three components
in the formation of the image: beliefs and attitudes associated with the product,
level of knowledge about the destination, and expectations about the product
(Nobs, 2003). Precisely, translation plays a crucial role on the last two
elements. Often, users' expectations are not considered when designing,
creating and translating tourism promotional material, which results in
unsuccessful and even failed promotional campaigns that can damage the
image of the destination and the products it offers. Since perceived image is
not a static parameter, all participants in the promotional development of the
tourist destination should review the tourist products and services on offer and
their projected image, trying to adjust market niches, products, and
destinations to existing or potential tourists, a process in which the translation
of tourism promotional texts plays a decisive role. In this paper, we delve into
the issue of quality in the translation of tourism promotional material (whether
printed, on websites, apps, and social media), through the analysis of several
international tourist promotion campaigns.
Keywords: Translation quality, Tourist promotion, Translation standard,
Promotional discourse, Image
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Resumen: Lograr la calidad turística implica contar con productos de calidad
y, dado que gran parte del contenido turístico se traduce, es necesario realizar
traducciones de calidad para garantizar niveles positivos de satisfacción por
parte del turista. La diferenciación de una marca se logra a través de la
imagen percibida (Andreu et al., 2000, p. 49). En la formación de la imagen
intervienen tres componentes: las creencias y actitudes asociadas con el
producto, el nivel de conocimiento sobre el destino turístico y las expectativas
sobre el producto (Nobs, 2003). Es en estos últimos dos elementos,
precisamente, donde la traducción desempeña un papel crucial. Con relativa
frecuencia, no se tienen en consideración las expectativas de los usuarios a
la hora de diseñar, crear y traducir el material promocional turístico, lo que
suele dar lugar a campañas promocionales poco exitosas (e incluso fallidas)
que pueden dañar la imagen del destino y de los productos que este ofrece.
Dado que la imagen percibida no es un parámetro estático, todos los
participantes en el proceso de desarrollo promocional del destino turístico
deberían revisar los productos y servicios turísticos implicados, así como la
imagen proyectada, tratando de ajustar los nichos de mercado, los productos
y destinos a los turistas reales y potenciales, proceso en el que la traducción
de los textos de promoción turística desempeña un papel decisivo. En el
presente artículo, examinamos la cuestión de la calidad en la traducción del
material de promoción turística (ya sea impreso, en páginas web, aplicaciones
y redes sociales), ilustrándola a través del análisis de diversas campañas de
promoción turística internacional.
Palabras clave: Calidad en la traducción, Promoción turística, Estándar de
traducción, Discurso promocional, Imagen
T
OURIST PROMOTION: BEHIND THE SCENES
Tourist promotional material generally invites us to go around the world
in a click, with a growing trend of offering new forms of information and devices
which allow us to make better informed decisions about our next trip or stay.
In this paper we will be dealing with the issue of quality, identifying the main
factors that affect the final promotional product and particularly focusing on
the aspects that should be considered to build up a translation standard in
tourism.
Tourism is undeniably a robust source of income worldwide and a form
of intercultural communication, which brings about possibilities of cultural and
social contact through different tourist products and services, which often
require translation demands to be met.
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In this context, firstly, we need to clarify what we mean by “tourism
product” and by “tourism quality”. According to Foris et al. (2018), who offer a
comprehensive review of quality models for tourist products:
[T]ourism products can be defined as products that satisfy the needs
of tourists. The first important characteristic of the tourism product is
its complexity: the tourism product is a composite one, consisting of
several goods and services offered to satisfy the tourists needs. It
generally includes accommodation, transportation, and dining, as
well as attractions and entertainment. Consequently, measuring
quality of the tourism product must consider a lot of product
distinguished features. (p. 161).
If activities, services or goods can be included under the label of tourist
products, from a more comprehensive umbrella-type approach, we may also
refer to tourist destinations as products, as they need to satisfy the needs of
tourists if they pursue to become real tourist destinations. In its glossary, the
United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) defines the main
destination of a tourism trip as “the place visited that is central to the decision
to take the trip” (WTO 2023a). By extension, all the other products are in some
way elements which are inextricably bound to a specific destination.
Therefore, the total quality management of tourist products and materials also
entails the evaluation of the networked array of tangible and intangible
elements that are related to a destination and contribute to its excellence.
According to a recent survey with the latest data (Statista 2024), the
tourist economic sector contribution to the world’s gross domestic product
(GDP) amounted to US$7.7 trillion, which is an extremely significant share of
the planet’s economy. The three leading world tourist destinations are: France
(over 89 million visitors in 2020), Spain (84 million visitors), and the United
States (79 million in the same year). (WTO 2021). In 2020, Spain was 2
nd
in
tourist earnings worldwide (and 1
st
in Europe) with US$80 billion. Besides,
tourism is the first source of income for many countries. In the case of Spain,
this amounts to 16 % of its GDP and nearly 18 % of jobs in the country. This
shows the huge importance of tourism not only globally, but also at national
level, and its repercussion on the image of Spain abroad.
Kelly (1997) defines the tourist text as “anything published by any
organization that is designed to either give information to visitors or to
advertise a destination and encourage travelling to that destination” (p. 35).
The two main functions of tourist promotional texts are informative and
persuasive. In this sense, these texts are intended to provide information
about a given destination to potential tourists and to attract them to a particular
destination or event. The variety of texts can be extremely diverse.
Nevertheless, we will particularly focus on tourist promotional texts here.
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New media, including the Internet, social media, and mobile apps, have
opened new possibilities for the development of fresh ways of attracting
tourists. Such media also pose new and complex challenges for software
developers, marketing and creative teams, and translators, which merit
specific studies. In this sense, the characteristics and potential of new forms
of text such as dynamic brochures, interactive personalized menus, and social
media platforms, surely call for a more open, interdisciplinary approach, with
a strong intercultural component that surpasses the linguistic level.
Tourist promotional texts are composed by a combination of textual,
iconic, and graphic elements. Depending on the medium or channel, the
proportion of these elements will vary. Most institutional tourist campaigns use
text/graphic advertising in general or specialized written publications, where
space is limited. A tourist text is the outcome of a complex process that
includes a heavy load of concentrated marketing, culture, and the use of
different semiotic and linguistic systems. The translated version should follow
the same conventions, but this is not always the case. As a result, ineffective
translations are produced, which compromise the objective of the final
product. This is due to the fact that translators are often not included in the
target text production process, thus yielding a target text that may not fulfil its
functional purpose, consequently jeopardizing a potentially successful
reception of the message in the target culture (Fuentes, 2016, pp. 98-99).
Tourism promotion depends heavily on translation (or rather, quality
translation, to be precise). However, such link and dependency are little
known, and institutions are not aware enough of such importance. Recognition
of the key role of both translation and translators is unfortunately and unfairly
marginal. In this sense, synergies from the different stakeholders are both
welcomed and needed.
1. T
HE NOTION OF IMAGE IN TOURIST PROMOTION
Sharma and Pradeep (2007, p. 49) defines “image” as “consumer
perception of a product, institution, brand, company or person which may or
may not correspond to reality”. In this sense, it could be said that “the
differentiation of a brand is achieved through the perceived image” (Andreu et
al., 2000, p. 49). As mentioned before, three components are normally
established in the formation of an image: beliefs and attitudes associated with
the product, level of knowledge about the destination, and the expectations
created by the product (Nobs, 2003). It is precisely in the last two elements
that translation plays a key role. User expectations are frequently overlooked
in the creation and translation process of tourist advertising material, giving
rise to failed promotion campaigns that can damage the image of the
destination and the products it offers. For instance, one of the main assets of
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the United Kingdom (UK) as a tourist destination is the British monarchy and
the events around it. Thus, in the official tourism promotional website, potential
visitors are invited to “take in royal experiences to mark the dawn of a new
era.” (VisitBritain 2023) The localized Spanish version misses the allusion to
the monarch by mistranslating “royal” as real (Vive experiencias reales que
marquen el amanecer de una nueva era, VisitBritain 2023), while some
reference to the monarchy would have preserved the invitation to participate
in some of the key events of the new king.
Brand and image go hand in hand and are constructed by the interplay
of all the different elements involved in the promotional campaign of a
destination or tourist product, including the tourist text, as defined above by
Kelly (1997). This definition points out to the broad range of texts which fall
within the umbrella of tourist discourse, given their complexity due to several
reasons: different formats and media (paper, audiovisual media, social media,
software applications, etc.), nature (static, such as printed ads; dynamic, such
as pop-ups and banners; or interactive).This entails an internal complexity in
terms of the combination of graphic, visual, verbal, iconic, symbolic or aural
elements of the promotional text depending on the medium.
Moreover, promotional tourist texts always go beyond local territories
and cultures (Shi-xu, 2015), since they aim at appealing visitors or customers
from other places selling as their unique proposition a different and positive
experience. Therefore, when elaborating a promotional text, tourist authorities
or companies make efforts to project a particular image of the destination or
tourist product which nurtures the brand as well. In this context we understand
the brand as “the unique combination of product characteristics and added
values, both functional and non-functional, which have taken a relevant
meaning which is inextricably linked to that brand, awareness of which might
be conscious or intuitive” in Morgan and Pritchard’s terms (2001, p. 15).
The differentiation of a brand (a destination) is achieved through the
“projected image”, a concept coined by Andreu et al. (2000) which refers to
the values, images or slogans tourist authorities, institutions or companies
wish to project about a determined destination or product. The projected
image is a “pull factor in the destination decision process, which is transmitted
by communication channels targeted at the potential tourist” (Ashworth, 1991;
in Andreu et al., 2000, p. 50). The image projected by a given tourist
destination is derived to a great extent from the different advertising
campaigns. For example, in the case of Spain, according to Andreu et al.
(2000, p. 52), during the 1970s and 80s, there was no coherence in
communication strategies for the design and creation of promotional material.
This situation was aggravated by the fact that neither the target audience nor
the main features of the target users were clearly defined. From the
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intercultural mediation point of view, this shows the importance of translation
as a key element for successful communication. It is also necessary to
establish appropriate feedback mechanisms that will allow for the different
participating agents to reassess and fine-tune the elements of the tourist
advertising campaign.
The perceived image, on the other hand, is a “dynamic concept on that
previous knowledge [the potential tourist has about the destination], the
experience at the destination, and the tourist’s evaluation of that knowledge
will affect his/her image of the destination [sic]” (Hu & Ritchie, 1993; in Andreu
et al., 2000, p. 51). The satisfaction level that results from an evaluation
process can help improve the destination image. Since the perceived image
is not a static parameter, those involved in tourist advertising should be in
constant review of the tourist products offered and the projected image, trying
to adjust market niches, products and destinations, and existing and potential
tourists. In our view, the translation of tourist advertising texts plays a decisive
role in this process. Thus, countries like Australia, Spain and the UK, and more
recently Saudi Arabia, have developed user-friendly and very attractive
institutional tourist websites with different contents, layout and products for
different target audiences. This would reflect the importance of appropriately
targeting niche markets.
2. Q
UALITY IN TOURISM PROMOTION
In the field of tourism, translation equals intercultural mediation
processes which demand a solid intercultural competence of translators if a
functional and effective target text reception is desired. For instance,
translators should be fully aware of cultural differences related to the language
choice and corresponding locales, since there are different varieties of
Spanish for Spain, Mexico, Argentina, Colombia, or Chile; likewise, English
may have variations for the United Kingdom, the United States of America
(US), Australia or Canada. Another example of cultural expertise is that
translators should have a sound knowledge of mutual perceptions and
stereotypes both in the source culture and in the target culture, as well as
knowledge of user’s needs and expectations. Therefore, tourist translators
stand close to marketing experts, as they should prove rich linguistic and
cultural competence and creativity skills.
Undoubtedly, quality tourism requires quality products and
communication strategies and processes. As such, there is a need for quality
translations of texts that can ensure positive satisfaction levels on the part of
the tourist. But what is expected from a quality translator in the translation of
tourist texts? If we consider tourism as an export product, then it follows that,
as Séguinot (1994) points out, the intercultural competence of the translator
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(in many different terms) is an essential element in the commercialization of
the tourism trade. The equation between quality tourism and quality products
has often led to a demand of quality promotional materials to obtain high levels
of satisfaction on the part of tourists. In the present context, tourism has
become widely internationalized, as an experiential action and as an
emotional experience. Therefore, promoting a tourist destination requires a
strategic plan and decisions to reach a wider audience of potential visitors,
which comprises the translation of various types of promotional materials.
Additionally, the use of diverse technological media for promotion has brought
about significant changes which affect the way users are addressed and how
content is presented in monolingual or multilingual contexts.
Regarding the notion of “quality”, it is generally agreed that it is difficult
to define what we mean by quality in tourism. Foris et al. (2018) point out that
a tourist product is “not only a collection of tangible products and intangible
services, but also psychological experiences” (p. 161), which are projected to
potential tourists under convincing premises. The more efficient the promotion
is, the more successful the experience of tourists will be, and tourism
institutions and organizations plan their promotional efforts accordingly
pursuing an optimal experience for their target clients. However, they do not
always succeed and particularly they tend to fail in language and cultural
aspects.
The UNWTO has launched A Practical Guide to Tourism Destination
Management with case studies and snapshots which do not deal with the
issue of language or communication, even though the UNWTO acknowledges
that multilingualism is “a core value of the United Nations” and language
diversity, “an integral part of tourism experience” (WTO, 2023b). However,
among the goals of the Department of Language Services of this organization,
“upholding language standards and establishing terminology” and ensuring
“that the official documents of the UNWTO, including all decisions and
resolutions of its governing bodies, are produced in all the official languages”
are limited to the internal work of the organization.
Generally speaking, the analyses Foris et al. (2018) carried out
“highlight the relatively low number of the tourism organizations ISO 9001
certified, and the causes that explain this situation”, which seem to be varied
and, among them, we underline the tendency towards “focusing on technical
issues, without taking into account social aspects” and the “lack of the staff
training in the field of quality” (p. 164).
Other forms to ensure quality started from classifications and rankings
of a more specific selection (Michelin Guides, Fodor guides, Lonely Planet,
hotel rankings, for instance) to the contemporary set of locally based
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classification schemes or quality awards (Q) in the form of marks, labels,
quality certification or criteria based on user reviews (Trip Advisor).
However, these quality systems still seem to fix sight on specific
elements without adopting a more global approach to the tourist promotional
material. In fact, the UNWTO defined the quality of a tourist destination as:
The result of a process which implies the satisfaction of all tourism
products and service needs, requirements, and expectations of the
consumer at an acceptable price, in conformity with mutually
accepted contractual conditions and the implicit underlying factors
such as safety and security, hygiene, accessibility, communication,
infrastructure, and public amenities and services. It also involves
aspects of ethics, transparency and respect toward the human,
natural, and cultural environment. (WTO 2023c).
Currently there are many certification systems worldwide and
particularly, the aim towards sustainability has resulted in a high number of
environmental quality labels, marks, and awards, related to the sustainable
development of tourist destinations. Therefore, any promotional material falls
within the quality control system and must comply with the established
standards for the destination.
One of the latest implementations of tourist quality, the Smart Tourist
Destinations, has the patronage of the European Union, which defines it
(2021) as “an initiative of the European Commission to support EU cities to
improve tourism services and experiences through innovative digital
solutions” (Smart Tourist Destinations, 2021). This European initiative has
been echoed in countries such as Spain, where the authorities have also
launched a management model of tourism called Smart Tourist Destinations,
considering the cross-cutting nature of tourist activities and the differentiating
features of each destination. For each one some diagnosis takes place
initially, an action plan is designed, followed by a monitoring phase, to identify
some best practices and some improvements.
The Innovation Section of the Spanish Tourist Board, Turespaña, has
published a guide with the best practices of the five Spanish destinations
which have been distinguished under the label of Smart Tourist Destinations
or “Destinos Turísticos Inteligentes” (Benidorm, Gijón/Xixón, Málaga,
Santander and Tenerife). By disseminating their best practices, they can
ensure the success of other destinations and identify their own areas of
improvement. Even though language and translation are often neglected in
many rankings and quality distinctions, in this case they are some of the
elements of interest in these destinations. For instance, Tenerife prides itself
for having a website in seven languages, which has been localized to better
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suit a personal experience of the user, with a chatbox in English and Spanish
(versions in French and German are in preparation) and prioritizing a natural
language to facilitate the visit to the island.
Similarly, Spain, as one of the major tourist worldwide destinations, has
recently opted for new models of tourism organization to enhance the benefits
of destinations in the country: the so-called “Co-Op” and “Branded-Content”
campaigns which have evolved from traditional marketing campaigns into
more effective and internationalized forms of promotion (Antón Argudo 2022).
The Co-Op campaigns are characterized by partnering with an online
intermediation channel which co-invests with the Spanish tourist authority,
Turespaña, to guarantee access to a qualified audience. In this case, these
channels will be the Online Travel Agent (OTA) Expedia, which is leader of
travel booking in Europe and United States, and TripAdvisor, a world-
established travel search engine with a monthly traffic of some 490 million web
users.
The second option, the “Branded-Content” campaigns, benefits from
the partnership of renowned brands with a common promotional goal. Spain’s
Turespaña has reached an agreement with National Geographic to promote
Spain as a sustainable, nature and rural destination, and with Conde Nast
Traveller publishing group for premium urban and sun and beach tourism. This
marketing strategy involves launching international campaigns with localized
and translated promotional products, as it already occurs with Conde Nast
magazines and with National Geographic advertising.
This exploratory approach to quality in tourism has provided evidence
that translation does not seem to be one of the aspects of interest in any of
the initiatives and quality management models, which often ignore language
and social factors, even though it is common ground that it is necessary to
adapt tourist-related products and services (including tourist texts) to the
user(s)' environment. Therefore, our contribution will provide a description of
some of these quality factors related to communication and translation, which
are often disregarded, expecting to build up a proposal of some quality
guidelines for the translation of tourism promotional materials.
3. Q
UALITY CRITERIA IN TOURIST PROMOTIONAL TRANSLATION
Some of the macro-textual and marketing strategies that have been
described in the previous section find their counterpart in the real cases we
will examine in further detail below. The concern for better quality tourist
products requires a localization approach and a definition of translation policy
which is founded on language and cultural decisions for every tourist
promotional campaign, as Pierini (2007) hinted. Regarding cultural
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presuppositions, we agree with Agorni (2012, p. 7) in that translators of tourist
promotional material should:
not only consider the amount of background knowledge already
possessed by their intended readership, but also be aware of the
ways in which their own decisions at linguistic and explanatory level
will allow a more or less degree of reader involvement, and
consequently affect the promotion of tourist resorts and attractions.
One of the main claims is that every tourist destination may be
promoted for different purposes and different users, so it is marketed to suit
the specific needs of varied user profiles. An example of how the user comes
first is one of the recent campaigns of New Zealand, which identifies four
different types of potential visitors according to the purpose of the trip. This
preliminary choice will determine the discourse according to the target
reader’s profile, namely, general tourists wishing to visit the country,
professionals interested in working in New Zealand, potential higher education
students, and business people with a view to invest in New Zealand
companies and businesses:
Image 1. New Zealand website
Source. Newzealand.com (14 November 2022)
Another element used in tourist promotion is the global gateway or
language selector which facilitates access to the content. In the New Zealand
official website, when choosing the target visitor option, this is approached not
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by language, but by a selection of countries and flags. The website focuses
only on a few countries and particularly on the English-speaking communities:
for example, both the Canada and the US sites are in English, leaving out
French-speaking Canada in the former case and the Spanish-speaking US
population in the latter. Thus, part of the Canadian and American population
is not being addressed in their own language, or first language.
Regarding the issue of the destination image, every tourist organization
projects an image of a destination either to consolidate or to create or to
modify such destination as a brand. For that purpose, institutions, tourist
boards or companies invest in international campaigns through different
media exploiting the projected image, as the following examples demonstrate.
A relevant example of the projected image of a destination is one of
Spain’s recent tourist promotion campaigns, which is of high significance since
tourism continues to be the main source of income of this country. In May
2022, the promotional campaign “Enamórate de España en verano” (This
summer, fall in love with Spain) was globally launched in different social media
(Twitter, WeChat, Weixin), livestreaming the promotional video and thus
consolidating the use of social media for tourism (Turespaña Oficial 2022).
The campaign is based on showing two sides of Spain, that is, Barcelona in
the North and Sevilla in the South, as the perfect destinations when Chinese
people were allowed to travel again after the COVID-19 pandemic. What is of
interest here is the perpetuation of clichés and stereotypes about Spain which
are transmitted by Chinese influencers in the streamed audiovisual program:
The film contains text written on the screen, as well as oral text and visuals
about the fame of Spanish football teams and stereotyped flamenco music
and dance, with the aim of making Chinese viewers fall in love with Spain.
While a translator is not involved directly in this text, this promotional tourist
ad shows the importance of the projected image in tourism. When transferring
ads, translators are faced with the decision about how to preserve that image
in the language choices. Having examined the Chinese text, we can confirm
that the key words and ideas any translator should maintain in the target text
reinforce the passion for dance, sport and art in Spain and the invitation to
falling in love with Spain in summer. Three well-known Chinese celebrities,
related to football, flamenco, and travel and with some connections with the
promoted destination, give their testimony about these promotional
messages. Should this campaign be localized to a different market or locale
(be it Korea, Japan, Morocco, etc.), such celebrities should be adapted
accordingly, a process in which translators should play a key role as
intercultural mediators.
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Image 2. Turespaña Twitter page
Source. Turespaña [@Turespana_] (27 May 2022)
The next example of the official tourism website of Spain indicates how
every communication approach entails localizing the content and offering a
display of language options to choose a different language site version.
Visiting the various language options included in the global gateway reveals
that they are not identical, neither in terms of content nor regarding the form,
since they are localized and tailored to the promotional strategy of the
individual target market.
Image 3. Spanish tourism official website (Spanish site)
Source. Spanish tourism official website (Spanish site) (2022)