ISSN: 1579-9794
Hikma 24 (Número especial II) (2025), 1 - 25
The Impact of Didactic Audiovisual Translation on
Plurilingual Competence: a Quantitative Exploratory Study
El impacto de la traducción audiovisual didáctica en la
competencia plurilingüe: un estudio exploratorio
cuantitativo
ANNA MARZÀ
amarza@uji.es
Universitat Jaume I
BEATRIZ CEREZO MERCHÁN
beatriz.cerezo@uv.es
Universitat de València
Fecha de recepción: 08/02/2024
Fecha de aceptación: 10/02/2025
Abstract: Embracing multilingual education is one of the challenges of today’s
globalised society. In this sense, in the last decades foreign language learning
has shifted from monolingual to multilingual approaches. The CEFR (Council
of Europe, 2001) introduces the concept of plurilingualism and stresses the
fact that individuals do not keep languages and cultures in watertight
compartments. Learners develop a competence (the plurilingual and
pluricultural competence -PPC-) to which all linguistic knowledge and
experiences contribute, as they exploit these connections to learn languages
more efficiently (Stille & Cummins, 2013). Within Translation Studies, didactic
audiovisual translation (DAT) is an area that has been surging in the last two
decades (Lertola & Talaván, 2022). However, the impact of DAT to develop
PPC is still underexplored. The project PluriTAV (Audiovisual Translation as
a Tool for the Development of the Multilingual Competence in the Classroom,
2017-2019) was born to fill this gap, as its main aim was to study the impact
of using active audiovisual translation (AVT) in students’ PPC.
This paper introduces previous research focusing on Translation, DAT and
PPT, and highlights the suitability of PluriTAV as the first and only attempt to
date to quantitatively analyse the effects of DAT didactic sequences (DSs) on
university students’ PPC. Then, it presents the methodological design of this
exploratory project and the project results in terms of the students’
development of certain PPC descriptors included in the subtitling, audio
description, free commentary and dubbing DSs designed. Results reveal that,
overall, using DAT has a similar effect on the development of PPC-related
knowledge descriptors as not using it, and that interlingual revoicing AVT
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modes especially benefit contrastive prosodic awareness. Additionally, one of
the main hypotheses formulated that would have to be tested in further
research is that longer DSs including various AVT modes would benefit text
type recognition and PPC-related skills.
Keywords: Language learning, Multilingual education, Plurilingual and
pluricultural competence, Didactic audiovisual translation, PluriTAV
Resumen: Adoptar el multilingüismo en la educación es uno de los retos de
la sociedad globalizada actual. En este sentido, en las últimas décadas el
aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras ha asistido a un cambio desde enfoques
monolingües a enfoques multilingües. El MCER (Consejo de Europa, 2001)
introduce el concepto de plurilingüismo y enfatiza el hecho de que las
personas no alojan las lenguas y las culturas en compartimentos estancos.
Los estudiantes desarrollan una competencia (la competencia plurilingüe y
pluricultural –CPP–) a la que contribuyen todos sus conocimientos lingüísticos
y experiencias, ya que explotan estas conexiones para aprender lenguas de
manera más eficiente (Stille y Cummins, 2013). Dentro de los estudios de
Traducción, la traducción audiovisual didáctica (TAD) es un área de
investigación que ha crecido rápidamente en las últimas dos décadas (Lertola
y Talaván, 2022). Sin embargo, el impacto de la TAD en el desarrollo de la
CPP casi no se ha estudiado. El proyecto PluriTAV (La traducción audiovisual
como herramienta para el desarrollo de la competencia plurilingüe en el aula,
2017-2019) nació al objeto de cubrir esta laguna, ya que uno de sus objetivos
fue estudiar el impacto de emplear la traducción audiovisual (TAV) de forma
activa en la CPP de los estudiantes.
Este artículo presenta investigaciones previas centradas en la Traducción, la
TAD y la CPP y destaca la idoneidad de PluriTAV como el primer y único
intento hasta la fecha de analizar cuantitativamente los efectos de secuencias
didácticas (SD) que usan la TAD en la CPP de estudiantes universitarios. A
continuación, expone el diseño metodológico de este proyecto exploratorio,
así como sus resultados en cuanto al desarrollo, por parte de los estudiantes,
de determinados descriptores de la CPP incluidos en las SD diseñadas de
subtitulación, audiodescripción, comentario libre y doblaje. Los resultados
revelan que, en general, usar la TAD tiene un efecto similar en el desarrollo
de descriptores de conocimiento relacionados con la CPP que no usarla, y
que las modalidades de TAV en las que se añade una nueva pista de diálogos
en la lengua meta son especialmente beneficiosas para trabajar la conciencia
sobre elementos prosódicos contrastivos. Adicionalmente, una de las
principales hipótesis formuladas que tendría que comprobarse en
investigaciones futuras es que emplear SD más largas y que incluyan varias
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modalidades de TAV mejoraría el reconocimiento de tipologías textuales y el
desarrollo de habilidades relacionadas con la CPP.
Palabras clave: Aprendizaje de lenguas, Educación multilingüe,
Competencia plurilingüe y pluricultural, Traducción audiovisual didáctica,
PluriTAV
1. INTRODUCTION
Over the last decades, the foreign language (FL) teaching and learning
paradigm has gradually shifted from purely monolingual approaches, in which
the only language that could be used in the classroom was the FL, to
multilingual approaches in which the learners’ linguistic repertoire is taken into
account and included. In these multilingual approaches, FL learning seems to
be best understood in terms of the exchange and mediation that takes place
between languages and cultures (Coste et al., 2009). The Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2001)
introduces the concept of plurilingualism and stresses that individuals do not
keep languages and cultures in watertight mental compartments, but they
develop a communicative competence to which all linguistic knowledge and
experiences contribute and in which languages relate to each other and
interact. This competence has been called plurilingual and pluricultural
competence (PPC), which Coste et al. (2009) define as:
[…] the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication
and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed
as a social actor, has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several
languages and experience of several cultures. This is not seen as
the superposition or juxtaposition of distinct competences, but rather
as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on
which the social actor may draw. (p. 11)
This means that languages are connected and that learners cannot only
use these connections but exploit them to learn languages more efficiently
and to be more competent users (Stille & Cummins, 2013). This shift in the
conceptualisation of what plurilingual individuals do with languages, how all
the linguistic resources are activated, caused a small, but powerful inclusion
in the CEFR: mediation. The referential document organised the learner and
user’s communicative language competence in various language activities,
including reception, production, interaction and mediation (in particular,
interpreting or translating).
In the field of translation, the engagement of learners through Didactic
Audiovisual Translation (DAT) in Foreign Language Learning (FLL) has
received increasing attention from both scholars and teachers in the last two
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decades (Lertola & Talaván, 2022). This article focuses on some of the results
of the research project PluriTAV (Audiovisual Translation as a Tool for the
Development of the Multilingual Competence in the Classroom, 2017-2019),
funded by the Spanish Government and the European Regional Development
Fund (ERDF), whose main objective was to study the didactic possibilities that
the application of the multilingual approach and the use of audiovisual
translation (AVT) could bring to the development of communicative
competences and the PPC by FL learners. In this way, PluriTAV fills an
important research gap, as studies on the PPC promotion are still scarce and
only a few have hitherto been carried out on AVT in FLL. Specifically, the
project entailed the development of a series of didactic sequences (DSs),
which can be defined as sets of learning activities organised around a written
or an oral textual genre (Dolz-Mestre & Schneuwly, 1998). These DSs
involved the active use of different modes of AVT (dubbing, free commentary,
subtitling and audio description) in order to improve communicative
competences and the PPC in the English language classroom.
The project also entailed quantitatively testing the effectiveness of the
approach used, for which control and experimental groups were created in a
university learning context in which students had Spanish or Catalan as L1
and were learning English as FL at a B2 level. These groups of students had
to take pre- and post-tests measuring the development of communicative
competences and the PPC. For more information on the multilingual approach
followed in PluriTAV, the DSs and the analysis tools developed, please see:
Martínez Sierra (2021), Cerezo Merchán & Reverter Oliver (2022), Baños et
al. (2021) and Marzà et al. (2021).
In this article, a brief review of previous research focusing on the
relationship between Translation, DAT and PPC will be presented. The
second section will detail the methodology followed, paying particular attention
to the design of the experiment, the design of the tests, the descriptors
analysed, and the characteristics of the statistical analysis performed. Finally,
the article will focus on the overall results of the PluriTAV project in terms of
the students’ development of certain PPC descriptors included in the
subtitling, audio description, free commentary and dubbing DSs. These
descriptors were selected from the Framework of Reference for Pluralistic
Approaches to Languages and Cultures (FREPA) (Candelier et al., 2012), the
only reference tool at the time that offered a list of items describing knowledge,
skills and attitudes related to the PPC (see Marzà et al., 2021 for the rationale
behind the selection process). Specifically, the focus is placed on the seven
descriptors (K6, K6.2, K6.6, K6.8, K6.5.3, S3.9.1 S3.4) that were included in
all DSs and for which there are comparable data from all groups (experimental
and control groups in all AVT modes). Given the exploratory nature of
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PluriTAV, the results of this work will allow us to establish a first approach to
the emerging field of DAT and PPC, as well as to draw conclusions and
formulate hypotheses for future studies and didactic applications.
1. TRANSLATION AND DAT FROM A MULTILINGUAL PERSPECTIVE
As already mentioned, research on Audiovisual Translation for
language learning has experienced a surge in the last two decades
(Incalcaterra McLoughlin et al., 2020; Pintado Gutiérrez, 2022; Soler Pardo,
2022). Talaván coined the term Didactic Audiovisual Translation for the active
use of the various modes of translation as pedagogical resources in language
didactics (2020). Many studies tackling DAT so far have two commonalities:
the focus on foreign (or additional) languages, mainly English; and the focus
on specific linguistic skills, such as vocabulary acquisition, comprehension, or
written skills. Exceptions to these rules apply of course, and more recent
research has started to explore the margins of DAT, for example by analysing
its effects on the teaching of minority languages in bilingual regions
(Avello-Rodríguez & Fernández-Costales, 2020) or in student motivation
(Alonso-Pérez, 2019), by observing its effects on plurilingual competencies
(Wilson, 2020) or even by exploring the potential of DAT in logopaedic
interventions (Fernández-Costales et al., 2022). PluriTAV’s approach does
focus on the application of DAT within the context of English as a Foreign
Language, but tackles the under-researched area of the promotion of PPC.
Therefore, this section will delve into research that incorporates a multilingual
approach in the use of AVT.
The seminal works by Cummins (1979a, 1979b, 2007) paved the
ground for a complete reconceptualization of language learning in multilingual
contexts and for plurilingual individuals. His interdependence hypothesis
states that common underlying linguistic abilities can be transferred from one
language to another, and individuals can connect the languages of their
repertoire to compare and contrast and, in doing so, become more efficient
learners and users. This notion triggered a profusion of conceptual reflections
and practical proposals, from the long-evolving notion of multicompetence by
Cook (1992, 2007; Franceschini, 2011); to the broader framework of a
Dynamic Model of Multilingualism (Herdina & Jessner, 2002), that
systematized the description of the complex multilingual system and shed a
light on the specificities of third language acquisition; to the innovative and
even disruptive incorporation of translanguaging practices in the classroom
(García & Wei, 2014). All the research supporting the importance of
translingual practices and strategies surely influenced the incorporation of
PPC and mediation in the CEFR, and the later definition of descriptors for
mediation. This linguistic activity is described in the CEFR Companion Volume
with New Descriptors as follows:
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[…] the written and/or oral activities of mediation make
communication possible between persons who are unable, for
whatever reason, to communicate with each other directly.
Translation or interpretation, a paraphrase, summary or record,
provides for a third party, a (re)formulation of a source text to which
this third party does not have direct access. Mediating language
activities, (re)processing an existing text, occupy an important place
in the normal linguistic functioning of our societies. (Council of
Europe, 2018, p. 175)
In González-Davies’s words (2020, p. 438), this perspective is directly
connected to “language brokering practices carried out continuously by
travellers, businesspeople, academics, migrants and their children, and many
others in diverse contexts such as education, healthcare or community
interpreting”. However, the educational context requires for all these language
brokering activities to be analysed, de-constructed, specified and exploited to
help learners improve and be more efficient in their use of mediation.
Cummins was one of the first scholars to challenge the monolingual
assumptions in education and advocate for the use of translation as a tool for
language learning (2007); more recently González-Davies (2020) proposes a
pedagogic approach that aims at fostering the necessary skills for an efficient
linguistic mediation: the Integrated Plurilingual Approach (IPA). The
application of the framework incorporates planned plurilingual activities and
accepts spontaneous plurilingual utterances, in a similar vein to pedagogical
translanguaging (Cenoz & Gorter, 2020). The IPA principles for research and
best practices draw on the aforementioned seminal research that has
triggered a multilingual turn in language education (Conteh & Meier, 2014):
Our research process explores how cross-curricular plurilingual
connections can be best implemented in foreign language learning
through an integrated treatment of all languages, including first and
heritage languages, and also in content subjects, for example, in the
CLIL mode (Content and Language Integrated Learning).
(González-Davies, 2020, p. 439)
Additionally, the IPA approach adopts a socio-constructivist stance by
using didactic sequences, fostering reflection and helping students progress
within their Zone of Proximal Development (Esteve & González-Davies,
2016). Within IPA, the use of translation is conceived under the framework of
Translation for Other Learning Contexts (TOLC), defined as “an informed
change of linguistic or cultural code applied consciously to an explicit primary
source text, whether verbal or non-verbal” (González-Davies, 2014, p. 11).
The notion is based on educational psychology, pedagogy and linguistics, and
transfers the translation competence to fields other than translator training
(González-Davies, 2004). TOLC places a strong importance in reflection,
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which allows for an informed use of translingual practices, an awareness of
the complexity of translation as a dynamic process of communication and the
integrated work of all language activities defined in the CEFR
(González-Davies, 2020).
IPA, TOLC and DAT constitute therefore a broad framework for
PluriTAV project’s principles: the active use of various modes of AVT in
language learning from a multilingual and socio-constructivist perspective.
IPA could be regarded as the general plurilingual pedagogic framework, under
which TOLC constitutes the approach for the use of translation in educational
settings, and DAT establishes the specific nuances provided by AVT in this
setting.
As already mentioned, only a handful of studies have combined the
use of AVT and the observation or assessment of mediation or PPC. Muñoz-
Basols (2019) presents two self-reflective activities conducted with university
students whose objective is to foster multilingual awareness by using
Multilingual Audiovisual Translation (MAT). His research does not provide any
statistical or qualitative analysis of results, since the focus is on theoretical
connections and didactic planning, but it is nonetheless relevant because it
addresses the urgent need to connect multilingual education and translation
in language teaching and learning.
The most complete research integrating AVT and PPC has been made
under the TOLC umbrella. Wilson & González Davies (2017) present data
from a quasi-experimental study where translation-based practices (including
some AVT modes) were implemented in an experimental group classroom in
secondary education over two terms. Several quantitative and qualitative
instruments were used to collect data on the acquisition of grammar,
vocabulary, the four language skills, and plurilingual competence. For the
analysis of PPC the study relied on qualitative instruments such as classroom
observations, semi structured interviews and the students’ performance, and
analysed the Companion’s indicators for PPC, detailed in section 5.5.7 of the
reference document
1
. This same project was the source of Wilson’s PhD
Thesis (2020), where more in-depth results are presented. The authors state
that the participation of students in TOLC IPA-based classroom practices can
have a positive effect on students’ development of PPC. Indeed, Wilson
(2020) provides some instances of PPC through observation notes and
productions of the students, but again PPC is not quantitatively assessed. In
1
Students draw connections and identify differences between the languages in their linguistic
repertoire; Students identify potential translation problems; Students are able to apply translation
strategies to overcome problems (e.g. false friends, idioms); Students make effective use of
resources (dictionaries and/or online tools).
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the discussion section, some connections between this research and
PluriTAV’s results have been made.
All in all, PluriTAV constitutes the first and only attempt so far at
quantitatively analysing the effects of DAT sequences on the PPC of university
students. More specifically, we will present the overall results of the PluriTAV
project in terms of the students’ development of certain PPC descriptors
included in the DSs of subtitling, audio description, free commentary and
dubbing. The next section delves further into the methodological design of the
study.
2. METHODOLOGY
Our research model is quasi-experimental with a non-equivalent
experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG), i.e. not randomly
configured by the researchers. All the students who participated in the
experiment had Spanish or Catalan as their mother tongue and were studying
English for specific purposes at B2 level. Specifically, the EG and CG of the
dubbing DS belonged to the subject Communication in English for Tourism III
of the Degree in Tourism at the Universitat de València; the students who did
the subtitling DS were studying English Language 2 for translators in the
Degree in Translation and Interlinguistic Mediation at the Universitat de
València. Finally, the EGs and CG of the audio description and free
commentary DSs were also studying English Language 2 for translators in the
Degree in Translation and Interlinguistic Mediation at the same university. In
total, 122 students participated in EGs and 36 students participated in CGs.
On the one hand, the EGs for the different modes of AVT had the following
number of students: 20 in dubbing, 33 in subtitling, 26 in audio description and
43 in free commentary. On the other hand, there was a CG for dubbing with
20 students and a CG for audio description and free commentary with 16
students.
After designing each DS, specific assessment instruments were
created to measure the development of certain plurilingual and pluricultural
descriptors included in the FREPA. These instruments were a pre-test and a
post-test, accompanied by their corresponding assessment rubrics. The pre-
test and post-test of each DS were identical so that comparable quantitative
data could be analysed statistically. Each task or question in the test was
designed to assess the students’ performance regarding one or a few specific
FREPA descriptors. The test follows the translanguaging approach in
plurilingual assessment as defined by Gorter & Cenoz (2017), since it includes
the following three strategies: integrating multilingual resources (some
questions incorporate texts in other languages), allowing the students to
translanguage (in some tasks, students are asked to provide a translation in
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whatever language they prefer), and having as a main aim the assessment of
cross-lingual skills or knowledge rather than the use of particular resources in
a given language. Therefore, and given the scarcity of quantitative research
on the assessment of the PPC, the tests designed within PluriTAV constitute
an exploratory attempt to contribute to the development of this subfield (see
Marzà et al., 2021 for further details on the design of the test).
The first step in designing the tests was to decide which descriptors
would be assessed. As already mentioned, FREPA was the only background
document available at the time the project started, and it contains more than
500 descriptors for the PPC, without performance levels. The selection
process was based on how translation competence can be perceived within
TOLC, that is, as “a set of specific linguistic, encyclopaedic and transferential
skills, along with specific intra- and interpersonal skills that may enhance
language learning” (González-Davies, 2014, p. 15). Thus, connections were
identified between these transfer skills and the mediation strategies included
in the CEFR, implemented in oral and written mediation. Finally, the six groups
of descriptors that were more related to transfer/mediation skills within a TOLC
context were chosen (K3, K6, K13, S3, S5 and S6). The focus was on skills
and knowledge (i.e. whether students “could do” specific tasks or “knew”
specific concepts directly related to the chosen descriptors) (see Baños et al.,
2021 and Reverter Oliver et al., 2020 for the rationale behind the selection of
descriptors and the planning of DSs). This paper will concentrate on results
regarding the seven descriptors that were included in all DSs and for which
there are comparable data from all groups (EGs and CGs in all AVT modes).
These descriptors are:
− K6 Knows that there are similarities and differences between
languages and linguistic variations.
− K6.2 Knows that each language has its own, partly specific,
way of perceiving or organising reality.
− K6.6 Knows that there is no word for word equivalence from
one language to another.
− K6.8 Knows that the organisation of an utterance may vary from
one language to another.
− K6.5.3 Knows that different languages may resemble each
other or may vary in their prosody (e.g. rhythm, accentuation,
intonation, etc.).
− S3.9.1 Can compare discourse types in different languages.
− S3.4 Can perceive lexical proximity.
Each of these descriptors was associated with one or several
tasks/questions of different types and nature included in the tests (see Marzà
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et al., 2021) that followed a translaguaging approach (Gorter & Cenoz, 2017),
with the aim of performing a summative assessment of their development. For
example, on the one hand, questions related to the knowledge descriptor K6
tested general awareness about similarities and differences between English
and other languages and students had to choose the most accurate
statement. Other questions related to knowledge descriptors (K6.2, K6.6, K6.8
and K6.5.3) presented ideas related to the learners’ approach to
translating/mediating between languages or to communicative strategies in
different languages and asked learners to indicate their level of agreement on
a Likert scale. On the other hand, the tasks linked to the skills descriptors
(S3.9 and S3.4) required learners to activate their PPC and did not offer
response options or statements in which to show their degree of agreement
or disagreement, but were free-response questions in which learners had to
identify the topic and genre of some texts written in unfamiliar languages and
explain the strategies they used for guessing.
Both the tests and their corresponding rubrics for interpretation and
coding of results are explained in detail in Muñoz-Miquel & Soler Pardo (2021)
and Marzà et al. (2021). The rubrics were designed to establish a detailed
statistical comparison between pre-test and post-test results of each DS by
gauging how well FREPA plurilingual descriptors had been tackled by
students. Therefore, all answers were codified and allocated scores. The
scoring was implemented by one researcher to guarantee homogeneity in the
interpretation of the students’ answers. Based on the rubric, the evaluator
stored the results in an Excel sheet, which was subsequently edited and
exported to R software (version 4.1.1).
To perform the statistical analysis of results, a study of proportions of
change was carried out for each item in the pre- and post-test of each CG and
in the pre- and post-test of each EG. Our aim was to analyse the proportion
of change or variance in the post-test responses with respect to the pre-test
responses in each group (i.e., whether they improved or remained at high
values or worsened or remained at low values from pre- to post-test) and
whether the differences were significant. To do so, the following hypothesis
test for each item was developed:
● H0: There is no difference between PRE and POST, i.e. the
pedagogical intervention has no effect, p>0.5.
● HA: There is a difference between PRE and POST, i.e. there is
an effect, p<0.5
In order to achieve greater synthesis and clarity in the presentation of
results, this article will present the proportion of grouped change, that is, the
items that respond to the development of the same descriptor in all the tests
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will be grouped and analysed to check whether the change from pre- to post-
test is significant in both CGs and EGs. More specifically, the data from the
two CGs will be presented as a single group (referred to as GC in the analysis
section), as they are considered comparable, but the data from the four EGs
(which will be referred to as EG-AD, EG-FC, EG-DUB and EG-SUBT) will be
analysed separately, so that the results of each AVT mode can be more clearly
seen.
Additionally, due to the exploratory nature of this study, a second
analysis of results was conducted, this time from a non-statistical perspective,
to gauge possible tendencies that could guide future research and pedagogic
applications. For this analysis, pre- and post-tests were graded by assigning
a value to each possible answer, emulating an exam grading.
Finally, a Cohen’s D-test was performed to obtain an objective
assessment of the pedagogical intervention impact size on the EG.
3. RESULTS
This section presents the results regarding the seven descriptors that
were assessed in all experimental DSs (dubbing, audio description, free
commentary and subtitling), contrasting them with the CG’s. These
descriptors belong to two main categories, K6 and S3, dealing respectively
with the knowledge about similarities and differences between languages and
linguistic variations; and the ability to compare or perceive linguistic or cultural
proximity and distance. The first part of this section presents the results from
the statistical analysis, whereas the second part of this section is dedicated to
a comparative analysis of numerical results for the tests (see Methodology).
3.1. Statistical analysis
The first result that statistical comparison yields is an overall similar
effect between control and experimental groups. In most descriptors, both
groups performed similarly in terms of variance. Table 1 shows the p-values
for a positive variance between the pre- and post-tests of each group, where
a number lower than 0.05 (in bold) indicates a statistically significant
improvement.
Descriptor
EG-AD
EG-FC
EG-DUB
EG-SUBT
CG
K6
0.001632
7.521e-1
0.1318
3.005e-06
6.713e-07
K6.2
0.0004281
5.306e-07
0.02209
6.415e-05
1.545e-05
K6.6
0.001632
5.305e-10
0.0003981
3.005e-06
0.0002326
Table 1. P-values for significant variance in EGs and CG
Source. Elaborated by the authors
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Results show that knowledge related to similarities and differences
between languages (K6, K6.2, K6.6) tends to improve significantly from the
pre-test to the post-test both in CG and EG, meaning that DAT is not
necessary for the improvement of these specific descriptors, which can
equally improve in a DS without AVT. The dubbing CG did not improve
significantly in descriptor K6 Knows that there are similarities and differences
between languages and linguistic variations, which should be taken into
consideration in future research. It should be noted, though, that the post-test
yielded better results than the pre-test, but these were not statistically
significant.
However, there is one K6 related knowledge descriptor (K6.8 Knows
that the organization of an utterance may vary from one language to another)
that is not significantly improved by the application of sequences neither in the
EGs nor the CGs, as indicated in table 2. Similarly, the skill S3.4 Can perceive
lexical proximity, does not show a significant improvement in any group.
Again, these data prove that both didactic approaches have a similar effect (in
these cases, not strong enough) on the students’ integration of the analysed
plurilingual competences.
Descriptor
EG-AD
EG-FC
EG-SUBT
K6.8
0.9845
0.9836
0.6361
S3.4
0.5
0.6198
0.2431
Table 2. P-values for non-significant variance in EGs and CG
Source. Elaborated by the authors
In spite of these general similarities, differences emerged from data that
carry a statistical significance. Firstly, descriptor K6.5.3 Knows that different
languages may resemble each other or may vary in their prosody was further
specified in the test to gauge the knowledge of three particular prosodic
features: pace, emphasis, and intonation (Table 3).
K6.5.3
EG-AD
EG-FC
EG-SUBT
pace
0.2781
0.007344
0.2431
emphasis
0.4223
0.001144
0.3639
intonation
0.7219
0.1801
0.3639
Table 3. P-values for variance on knowledge of prosodic features
Source. Elaborated by the authors
DAT modes that imply interlingual revoicing seem to favour contrastive
prosodic awareness, compared to not using DAT or using DAT modes in
which there is not a combination of interlingual oral tasks (AD or subtitling).
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This combined focus that takes place while working in free commentary and
dubbing DSs seems to help integrate how pace and emphasis work in each
language (significant p-values in bold in Table 3). On the contrary, in cases
where either the interlinguistic comparison (such as AD or CG) or the oral
component are missing (subtitling), this effect seems to be weaker. The
awareness of different intonation patterns, however, does not seem to follow
this trend, since none of the sequences managed to improve its knowledge.
A second difference regards the skill of being able to compare
discourse types (S3.9.1), analysed through an activity in which students had
to guess the topic and genre of three texts written in unfamiliar languages and
explain the strategies they used for guessing. Their ability to justify their
choices by naming formal characteristics of each of the genres portrayed was
deemed to be demonstrative of their ability to compare discourse types. As
Images 1 and 2 show, the percentage of variance of the two CGs (p-value =
0.0007655) statistically outperformed all the DAT groups, analysed either
individually or all together as a single experimental group, as shown here (p-
value = 0.06189).
Image 1. Ability to compare discourse types in CG
Source. Elaborated by the authors
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Hikma 24 (Número especial II) (2025), 1 - 25
Image 2. Ability to compare discourse types in joint EG
Source. Elaborated by the authors
These results indicate that the approach designed by PluriTAV for the
use of DAT, that is, applying short DSs focused on one single AVT type, does
not foster the students’ ability to activate their previous knowledge on textual
conventions and transfer this knowledge to a new, challenging situation.
3.2. Non-statistical analysis
The highly specific results of a statistical comparison are essential to
narrow down future research on plurilingual competence. However, from a
pedagogic point of view, a wider look at results is also relevant, especially
within a TBL or DS approach, where language is used and studied within a
communicative situation and where various competences, skills and
knowledge are activated at the same time. This section will provide a more
integrated view of the impact that the various DAT DSs had on the PPC of
students, with a joint analysis of the five knowledge descriptors on one hand
and the two skill descriptors on the other.
Image 3 portrays the overall grade the students received in terms of the
knowledge descriptors included in this piece of research.
Anna Marzà and Beatriz Cerezo Merchán 15
Hikma 24 (Número especial II) (2025), 1 - 25
Image 3. Knowledge grades in pre- and post-test in all groups
Source. Elaborated by the authors
The DAT sequences were successful in enhancing the studied PPC-
related knowledge of students when using dubbing and free commentary,
since their grades improved 1 and 0.7 points respectively. However, the
impact of using AD, subtitling or no DAT was very low, with a better result in
the CG, since none of these modalities managed to change more than 0.3
points the pre-test grade either positively or negatively.
When analysing the influence of the sequences on the improvement of
skills related to the PPC, results show a concerning picture (Image 4).
Image 4. Skills grades in pre- and post-test in all groups
Source. Elaborated by the authors
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In this case, only the use of dubbing manages to slightly improve the
students’ PPC-related skills (+0.4 points), but the change is almost irrelevant
and the post-test grade does not reach a pass (4.5). The results for other DAT
sequences are slightly lower in the post-test, reaching -0.9 lower in free
commentary and almost the same in the case of the CG. It is also worth noting
that the initial grades in all groups are lower than the grades related to
knowledge, as Table 4 shows.
Table 4. Pre-test grades for knowledge and skills
Source. Elaborated by the authors
This same table reveals one last relevant finding: the PPC-related
knowledge of all students, both in experimental and control groups, was
already high before starting the experiment.
4. DISCUSSION
This section highlights the contributions of PluriTAV to the emerging
field of DAT and PPC, and critically discusses results with the objective of
pushing this under-researched area forward. Nonetheless, a reminder of the
exploratory nature of PluriTAV is necessary, by which our approach to data
has been to detect research-grounded points of departure for future studies
and didactic applications, rather than to establish categorical and generalised
affirmations.
Firstly, data have revealed that AVT modes with some variety of
interlingual revoicing (dubbing and free commentary) enhance the students’
awareness of differences and similarities between languages in terms of pace
and emphasis significantly better than when not applying DAT. As already
stated, the combination of oral and interlingual tasks could be behind this
particular result, although further research is needed to confirm the idea. This
finding can be linked to Wilson’s results (2020) regarding the promotion of
PPC. In her study, the theme “connections between languages” was the most
salient one in teacher’s observations and interviews for the EG, with students
explicitly drawing on similarities and differences between the languages while
performing the tasks. Interestingly enough, Wilson’s semi-structured
interviews showed signs of these connections also in the CG, however, these
Knowledge
Skills
AD
7.7
5.6
SUBT
8.2
7.3
FC
7.7
7.2
DUB
7
4.1
CG
7.5
5.6
Mean
7.62
5.96
Anna Marzà and Beatriz Cerezo Merchán 17
Hikma 24 (Número especial II) (2025), 1 - 25
participants regarded the strategy of looking for similarities and differences as
negative, focusing on interference, as opposed to the EG, who drew on
interdependence and considered these strategies as positive. These results,
together with the fact that knowledge related to similarities and differences
between languages tends to improve significantly in all groups (see Table 1),
support the use of DAT in the classroom to promote this aspect of PPC, even
in those cases where PluriTAV did not find a significant difference between
CG and EG.
The implications of these findings are several. On one hand, from a
pedagogic point of view and drawing on PluriTAV’s and Wilson’s findings, DAT
can be regarded as generally constructive in terms of enhancing both the
knowledge and a positive attitude towards the comparison between
languages. On a more detailed scale, a contrastive focus on intonation
patterns may be needed in any DAT approach, if intonation is a planned
teaching objective, since the mere use of AVT does not appear to have a
significant impact. On the other hand, DAT sequences that do not include
dubbing or free commentary may need a reinforcement of the oral or
interlingual aspect that is missing, depending on each mode, if contrastive
prosodic awareness is to be promoted. In this sense, using DAT can often be
regarded as an advantage since at least one of these aspects is bound to be
inherently present within the DS
2
. In terms of research, the field of contrastive
prosody seems to be an avenue worth exploring within DAT for PPC, since
PluriTAV’s results show that some knowledge mobilisation happens when
applying AVT in language learning, and its connection to orality and
interlinguistic translation could be further operationalised.
A second important contribution of the project is that applying isolated
DAT sequences, focused on one single AVT mode, may diminish the students’
ability to compare discourse types. This finding was presented in a previous
publication analysing the AD sequence results (Torralba et al., 2022), and now
it has been corroborated with the complete set of data. In all DAT sequences
analysed here, the students were less able to transfer to a new language their
Common Underlying Proficiency (Cummins, 1979b) regarding textual
structures and patterns after focusing on one specific genre (or AVT mode in
this case) for the whole duration of the DS. The pedagogic implications of this
finding could be that any DAT planning should include more than one AVT
mode, so that students can also focus on textual similarities between
languages and formal differences between different genres or AVT modes.
The project TradiLex (Fernández-Costales et al., 2023; Talaván et al., 2024)
has incorporated the approach of combining different AVT modes, but this
2
There are some exceptions, like SDH.
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particular PPC-related skill has not been a focus of their research. Wilson’s
research (2020) also includes three DSs and different AVT modes and textual
genres
3
and her research provides an overall positive effect in student’s PPC,
but not specifically on the comparison of discourse types. Hence, this
constitutes a necessary future research topic, analysing the evolution of the
skill to compare discourse types after longer DAT sequences that include
different AVT modes in order to validate or refute the hypothesis formulated
here.
The third major contribution of PluriTAV has been to show the gap
between PPC-related knowledge and skills. As seen in Table 4, the pre-test
grades regarding skills were quite lower than the ones regarding knowledge
in all groups: -1.66 on average, ranging from -0.5 when using free commentary
to -2.9 in the case of the dubbing DS. Moreover, images 3 and 4 show that
results were even lower in the post-tests (AD, subtitling and free commentary)
or almost the same (dubbing and CG). On one hand, this may point at an
educational system that still prioritizes knowledge over skills, since the shift
from content-based learning to competence-based learning is fairly recent in
Spain (Tiana et al., 2011). On the other hand, this finding shows that 8-hour
DSs, whether they include AVT or not, may be too short to influence PPC-
related skills, especially bearing in mind that students are less prepared in this
aspect before starting the DS. The implications for research are clear: further
attention needs to be placed on PPC-related skills to establish how they could
be improved and to develop appropriate didactic strategies.
One of PluriTAV’s objectives was to compare the effectiveness of
various AVT modes used in class under similar conditions. Results show that
free commentary and especially dubbing seem to contribute to a stronger
improvement in PPC-related knowledge (in the case of dubbing, also in skills).
The lack of qualitative interviews does not allow for the formulation of
grounded hypotheses, but the familiarity with dubbing among Spanish
students
4
could be the key: a possibly lower learning curve regarding the
specificities of these AVT modes may have allowed students to focus on the
objectives of the tasks, rather than the technicalities. Audio description and
subtitling, on the contrary, require new abilities that may have overlapped with
the PPC-related learnings. However, PluriTAV is an exploratory study that
included one single EG per AVT mode and, therefore, variations could be due
to the random composition of the groups. More research is needed comparing
3
Not all the genres used in the DS can be linked to the audiovisual modes, but all texts are
multimodal and include some form of translation or mediation: dubbing and subtitling of a film
trailer, a storytelling video retelling in English a Catalan legend, and an interactive digital poster.
These similarities support the study’s comparison with PluriTAV.
4
Spain is culturally a dubbing country (Chaume, 2012).
Anna Marzà and Beatriz Cerezo Merchán 19
Hikma 24 (Número especial II) (2025), 1 - 25
specific aspects of PPC between groups applying different AVT modes to see
if the tendency observed in PluriTAV can be generalised and, if so, to analyse
its causes with qualitative interviews and classroom observations.
Finally, Table 4 shows that the PPC-related knowledge was high before
starting the DSs in all groups, with grades above 7 out of 10. Torralba et al.
(2022) discussed this result when analysing the AD DS, and the tendency
shown there has now been confirmed with all groups. This finding has several
implications, as stated by Torralba et al. (2022), especially regarding the need
to conduct empirical research to specify how FREPA descriptors vary across
proficiency levels and to confirm the adequacy of the 2020 Companion
Volume levels. Working with FREPA non-graded descriptors has impacted the
results of PluriTAV, since the DSs were planned around knowledge
descriptors that were probably already acquired by participants before the
study, and therefore these descriptors may not have been the most
appropriate for assessing the students’ improvement.
5. CONCLUSIONS
PluriTAV offers a first glance at the effect of didactic AVT on PPC. At
the onset of the project, there was little to no quantitative research on the
assessment of PPC (see Marzà et al., 2021 for a review), and none of it
focused on didactic interventions in real contexts. This exploratory nature has
helped provide a glimpse into the connections between DAT and PPC, but it
has also raised many questions that open several avenues for future research,
as discussed in the previous section.
Overall, the use of DAT has a similar effect on PPC-related knowledge
descriptors compared to not using DAT, and contrastive prosodic awareness
seems to be especially benefited by the active use of interlingual revoicing
AVT. These results can be added to the wealth of previous research
describing the benefits of DAT, having shown its effectiveness in several
linguistic skills (Fernández-Costales et al., 2023), attitudes towards
translingual practices (Wilson, 2020) and motivation (Alonso-Pérez, 2019),
among others. Moreover, DAT has proven to be highly adaptative, since it has
been used in diverse educational levels and contexts (Fernández-Costales et
al., 2022). Finally, our study has pointed out that DAT will be more beneficial
for text type recognition and PPC-related skills if longer DSs are planned
including various AVT modalities.
PluriTAV’s shortcomings can be used as future recommendations for a
better planning of research regarding PPC and DAT. Firstly, all the efforts
were concentrated on designing, testing and applying appropriate tests and
rubrics for the quantitative analysis of PPC, given the novelty of these
instruments. However, the lack of complementary qualitative assessment
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tools has prevented us from extracting valuable information that could have
explained or expanded some of the findings. Wilson’s 2020) design of a sound
mixed methodology with pre- and post-tests, classroom observations,
interviews and students’ productions could be the way forward. Secondly, the
lack of previous similar research did not allow for a focus on a particular skill
or knowledge within PPC. On the contrary, PluriTAV’s exploratory nature
called for a broad analysis of several descriptors. However, this fact, together
with the unwieldiness of FREPA, may have led to inconclusive results that
have been formulated as hypotheses. Future research can now take each of
these hypotheses as a starting point for a focused analysis on a particular
descriptor and provide statistically significant data.
As Muñoz-Bassols (2019), we believe that DAT research and practice
can now embrace the multilingual turn in language education and start
spreading towards those margins that challenge the status of major languages
and empower the students’ identities and agency by bringing their whole
linguistic repertoire into play. PluriTAV has been just a small step in that
direction, by assessing the translingual practices embedded in the foreign
language classroom when using AVT.
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