ISSN: 1579-9794

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Unveiling Audio Description Styles’ Diversity in Persian

Descubriendo la diversidad de estilos de

audiodescripción en persa

FATEMEH JOMHOURI

fjomhourish@mail.um.ac.ir

Ferdowsi University of Mashhad

MASOOD KHOSHSALIGHEH (CORRESPONDING AUTHOR)

khoshsaligheh@um.ac.ir

Ferdowsi University of Mashhad

AZADEH ERISS

aeriss@binghamton.edu

Binghamton University, State University of New York (SUNY)

Fecha de recepción: 14/04/2024

Fecha de aceptación: 12/06/2025

Abstract: Audio description (AD) is indispensable for ensuring that visual media

becomes fully accessible to blind and visually impaired (BVI) individuals, thereby

allowing them to actively participate in and enjoy films and television shows

alongside sighted audiences. Although AD serves as a cornerstone of media

accessibility and inclusivity, the rich diversity of AD styles in practice has

attracted surprisingly limited scholarly attention, with even less directed toward

non-Western contexts such as Iran. This study seeks to fill this gap by

conducting an in-depth investigation into Persian-language AD, with a primary

focus on identifying and categorizing its distinct styles' variations. The research

methodology commences with a comprehensive review and synthesis of the

existing international literature on AD styles, which informs the construction of a

detailed analytical framework. This framework ultimately encompasses seven

well-defined styles, each characterized by three fundamental elements. To

operationalize this framework, data collection continues until data saturation, at

which point the presence or absence of the AD styles identified in the literature

was consistently observed across the samples. Finally, 21 drama films were

reached, and underwent a meticulous analysis of their scripts. The results from

this script analysis demonstrate marked stylistic preferences within Persian AD.

2 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

The objective style emerged as the most frequently used, accounting for 33.3%

of the total instances. The descriptive style followed, comprising 28.5% and

prioritizing visual elements to enhance the audience’s understanding. The mixed

style, which strategically combines other subjective techniques, accounted for

23.8%, while the narrative style, a narratological approach to content selection,

accounted for 14.2%. By establishing this typology, the study significantly

advances scholarly understanding of AD practices in Iran and provides a

foundation for future improvements in accessibility standards and training.

Keywords: Media accessibility, Audio description, Audio description styles,

Blind and visually impaired, Iran

Resumen: La audiodescripción (AD) es indispensable para garantizar que los

medios visuales sean plenamente accesibles para las personas ciegas y con

discapacidad visual (BVI), lo que les permite participar activamente en películas

y programas de televisión y disfrutarlos junto con el público vidente. Aunque la

AD constituye un pilar fundamental de la accesibilidad e inclusividad mediática,

la rica diversidad de estilos de AD en la práctica ha recibido sorprendentemente

poca atención académica, y aún menos en contextos no occidentales como

Irán. Este estudio busca llenar este vacío mediante una investigación

exhaustiva de la AD en lengua persa, con un enfoque principal en identificar y

categorizar las variaciones de sus estilos distintivos. La metodología de

investigación comienza con una revisión y síntesis exhaustiva de la literatura

internacional existente sobre los estilos de AD, lo cual guía la construcción de

un marco analítico detallado. Este marco finalmente abarca siete estilos bien

definidos, cada uno caracterizado por tres elementos fundamentales. Para

poner en práctica este marco, la recopilación de datos continúa hasta alcanzar

la saturación de datos, momento en el cual la presencia o ausencia de los

estilos de AD identificados en la literatura se observó de manera consistente en

las muestras. Finalmente, se seleccionaron 21 películas dramáticas

(audiodescritas por Sevina y Gooshkon), las cuales fueron sometidas a un

análisis minucioso de sus guiones. Los resultados de este análisis de guiones

muestran claras preferencias estilísticas dentro de la AD en persa. El estilo

objetivo surgió como el más utilizado, con un 33,3 % del total de las instancias.

Le siguió el estilo descriptivo, que representó el 28,5 % y prioriza los elementos

visuales para mejorar la comprensión del público. El estilo mixto, que combina

estratégicamente otras técnicas subjetivas, representó el 23,8 %, mientras que

el estilo narrativo, un enfoque narratológico en la selección de contenido,

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 3

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

alcanzó el 14,2 %. Al establecer esta tipología, el estudio contribuye de manera

significativa a la comprensión académica de las prácticas de AD en Irán y

proporciona una base para futuras mejoras en los estándares de accesibilidad y

en la formación especializada.

Palabras clave: Accesibilidad a los medios, Audiodescripción, Estilos de

audiodescripción, Personas ciegas y con discapacidad visual, Irán

INTRODUCTION

In the modern media environment, where abundant audiovisual content is

available across diverse platforms and media, the importance of Audiovisual

Translation (AVT) in our everyday existence has become more evident (Abu-

Rayyash & Shiyab, 2023; Shokoohmand & Khoshsaligheh, 2024). In today’s

world, where a substantial portion of information is delivered through audiovisual

(AV) media, ensuring easy access to those individuals with special needs has

emerged as a critical imperative. As per Gambier (2023), accessibility enables

individuals to achieve specific goals in a manner that is effective, efficient, and

satisfactory, fostering communication that surpasses boundaries related to

social, cognitive, age, gender, mental, sensory, and physical impairments.

Media accessibility (MA) has evolved from being perceived as a subfield of AVT

to a fully interdisciplinary domain. Notably, the attention and expertise of

professionals from various fields have converged on this area. Two primary

means of facilitating accessibility are AD for the blind and visually impaired (BVI)

and subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing (SDH). The definition of AD

typically underscores its role as “a precise and succinct aural translation of the

visual elements in live or recorded performances, exhibitions, or sporting events

intended to benefit visually impaired individuals” (Hyks, 2005, 6). While AD

research and practice have seen remarkable growth over the past decade

(Bardini, 2017), mostly in the European context, AD research in Iran is nascent,

and its presence in the local academic landscape remains limited, with only a

few publications (Cao et al., 2025; Homayouni & Khoshsaligheh, 2024;

Khoshsaligheh & Shafiei, 2021; Khoshsaligheh et al., 2022).

Various factors shaped AD quality, with style occupying a relevant role.

Unlike Iran, multiple studies have explored AD styles in international contexts.

AD style includes both language and script type. Traditional norms dictate that a

good AD should be as neutral as possible and free from specialized terminology,

such as specific camera modes (Rai et al., 2010). However, ongoing research

on AD styles has introduced novel and alternative approaches, which were

4 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

subsequently tested with BVI audiences, receiving positive feedback (Bardini,

2017; Szarkowska, 2013; Walczak & Fryer, 2017). Unexpectedly, despite

substantial research and the introduction of diverse stylistic approaches, no prior

classification of these styles within Iran or broader international contexts, has

been established.

This exploratory study aims to illuminate the existing AD styles, focusing

on the Iranian context. The significance of stylistic considerations in AD is

crucial. Neglecting these elements during production can cause audience

dissatisfaction and leave the producers unsure how to generate higher-quality

ADs. A corpus of Persian ADs produced by two non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) in Iran, including Sevina (Cinema for the Blinds) and Gooshkon

(Neighborhood of the Blinds), has been selected for investigation. Drawing on a

theoretical framework developed through a review of the existing literature, this

study aims to classify the observed AD styles systematically, offering a credible

reference for future AD initiatives and practice developments. In doing so, the

article addresses three key research questions:

1. What is the primary classification of Persian AD styles?

2. Do the AD styles in literature match those produced in Iran?

3. How do the two AD producer groups differ in their AD products?

Ultimately, this study seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of

Persian AD practices and offer a structured reference for future research and

practice in the field.

1. LITERATURE REVIEW

The primary objective of this section is to examine the existing body of

literature related to AD in AVT studies. It commences with an introduction to the

study’s context, then delves into the central subject matter of the article and

explores prior research in the same domain.

1.1. AD

AD is considered an intersemiotic type of AVT, and it translates vital

visual elements into verbal description and inserts them in the silent gaps of

visual products (Braun, 2008). Intersemiotic, as Roman Jakobson (1959)

unprecedentedly defined, is “an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs

of nonverbal sign systems” (Jakobson, 1959, p.114). Nevertheless, as can be

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 5

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

understood, AD is paradoxical to Jakobson’s intersemiotic, as it is the verbal

interpretation of non-verbal signs. So, Jakobson’s classification needs to be

amended to include other domains as well. In addition, AD does not only

describe images but also mentions issues such as the origin of unintelligible

sounds or points out who is speaking. Thus, AD can be introduced as a

multisemiotic in lieu of an intersemiotic (Mazur, 2020).

The primary aim of AD is to create an experience for BVI individuals

comparable to that of sighted individuals who view films through soundtracks

and moving images (Rodríguez Posadas, 2010). To achieve this goal, we

should keep in mind that the important principle of AD is to insert the description

exactly in the silent gaps, and more importantly, it should not overlap with the

dialogues, sound effects, or background music essential to the plot (Braun,

2008).

Academic interest in this innovative form of AVT quickly grew in response

to developments in AD provision. AD has drawn researchers from various fields,

including linguists (Ibáñez & Vermeulen, 2013), translation scholars (Kruger &

Orero, 2010), and psychologists (Hutchinson & Eardley, 2022). Since these

experts contributed their unique research methodologies to the study of AD, the

field of study has genuinely become multidisciplinary.

Although researchers from different disciplines entered the field of AD,

there has always been a debate about what kind of information, how much

detail, and how it should be conveyed in the AD script. These debates sparked

reception studies investigating the preferences of AD audiences (Chmiel &

Mazur, 2012, 2016; Orero, 2008), the extent of providing details (Fresno et al.,

2014), narrative priorities (Di Giovanni, 2014), language (Piety, 2004),

describer’s voice (Fernández-Torné & Matamala, 2015), and also style (Cao et

al., 2025; Jekat & Carrer, 2018; Szarkowska, 2013; Walczak & Fryer, 2017).

1.2. AD in Iran

AD is a relatively new area of exploration in Iran and has only received

limited research attention. Khoshsaligheh and Shafiei (2021) identified AD as a

new area for research in AVT in Iran and analyzed the present situation in the

country. Radio channels, the independent group of Sevina, and Gooshkon are

the most frequent producers of AD in Iran, with national television yet to make

significant strides in this field. The findings underscore the crucial requirement

6 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

for further research and development in the AD domain in Iran, particularly in

national television programming (Khoshsaligheh et al., 2022).

1.3. AD styles

Applying style in AD, this topic can concern how visual images and the

source of sounds related to the plot are translated into verbal descriptions or the

content alternatives and shaping the description. The first sparks of the style

topic seem to have been from the discussion between subjectivity and

objectivity. After that, other types of ADs emerged, which are briefly discussed

below.

1.3.1. Objective

The objective AD involves adhering to high standards of guidelines.

Various researchers and guidelines consider objectivity an essential element in

AD (AENOR, 2005; American Council of the Blind, 2009; Benecke & Dosch,

2004; Morisset & Gonant, 2008; Orero, 2005; Remael & Vercauteren, 2007;

Vercauteren, 2006), which has been developed globally to standardize the

parameters associated with the development of AD scripts. In objective

descriptions, interpretive segments about characters are discouraged, and the

emphasis is on straightforwardly describing on-screen content for BVI

understanding (Bardini, 2017; Jekat & Carrer, 2018; Malzer-Semlinger, 2012;

Udo et al., 2010). Following the WYSIWYS (What You See Is What You Say)

paradigm (Snyder, 2008), Bardini (2020, p. 263) defines this style as:

A denotative AD style which describes what is shown at an iconic level,

thus avoiding any kind of interpretation or mention of film techniques.

The main aim of this AD style is to give a matter-of-fact depiction of

what appears onscreen, so that BPS (blind and partially sighted)

audiences can reconstruct the meaning of the images for themselves

(p. 263).

1.3.2. Subjective

The study of alternative AD practices and procedures is expanding as

researchers collaborate with theater groups to devise innovative AD techniques.

In fact, subjective AD styles include linguistic techniques that completely depart

from impartiality and objectivity, such as subjective evaluation of the describer,

inferences, metaphors, and the connotative language (Caro, 2016). Scholarly

articles like Udo et al. (2010) disseminate information on unconventional AD and

audience feedback. Caro and López (2014) conducted experimental research

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Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

comparing the emotional reactions of BVI and sighted audiences to avant-garde

and mainstream films. The study suggests that existing objective AD practices

may limit emotional responses to avant-garde films, creating challenges in

conveying a strong emotional impact in short films. The need for objectivity and

neutrality in current AD practices complicates the task of eliciting similar

emotional responses to the original visual content, suggesting that an objective

AD style is not suitable for these films.

The overall concept of AD relies on subjective perspectives, and

guidelines aimed at reducing subjectivity can vary in interpretation and

application across countries (Fryer, 2016). Vercauteren and Orero (2013)

suggest that while existing AD guidelines are valuable and necessary, they

should not always be followed strictly.

By incorporating various options into subjective AD style, multiple

researchers have introduced new AD typologies. Drawing on these studies, the

present article adopts a classification of these variations as subcategories of

subjective AD style: narrative, descriptive, interpretative, cinematic, creative, and

first-person. They are all briefly explained below.

1) Narrative

Kruger (2010) introduced a new form of AD called audio narration (AN). In

AN, fidelity to narrative implications is prioritized over adherence to visual codes.

This means that sometimes, prominent visual elements are ignored to

emphasize narrative effects. In other words, for BVI audiences, understanding a

film’s narrative is not just about “WHAT is shown (characters, actions, settings),

or even HOW it is shown (from what angle, from what distance, from whose

perspective) but WHY what is shown is shown the way it is shown or, SO

WHAT? (the narrative effect)” (Kruger, 2010, p. 234). However, it does not

necessarily describe every detail or in the exact moment precisely, but rather

captures the emotions evoked and the meaning conveyed through film language

(Bardini, 2020).

BVI users significantly accepted AN, emphasizing the potential of a

narratological style in content selection for both written and visual narratives

(Vercauteren, 2012). Vercauteren’s work emphasizes the application of

narratology in AD content selection.

2) Descriptive

8 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Descriptive AD style, as outlined by Jekat and Carrer (2018), emphasizes

the meticulous description of the characters, the setting, and the actions without

the using of evaluative adjectives or any interpretations, just focusing on the

detailed visual elements to enhance the audience’s understanding (Kruger,

2010). Moreover, a descriptive AD script entails unmarked word order and

choices, preventing any misunderstanding of the narration (Jekat et al., 2015).

3) Interpretative

Interpretative AD style, as outlined in the literature, is characterized by its

focus on enhancing the audience’s understanding and engagement with visual

content. It offers insights into the characters’ underlying motivations, bringing up

a deeper understanding of the symbolic content (Jekat et al., 2015). Also,

evaluative adjectives attributed to characters and objects, facial expressions,

and the subjective description of characters’ emotions, as identified by Jekat and

Carrer (2018), evoke emotional responses and transfer information as

completely as possible. Syntax can also play a crucial role in interpretative AD

style, as marked syntactic positions further enrich the AD script (Jekat et al.,

2015).

4) Cinematic

To simply define cinematic AD style, we should mention that it implies

cinematic language referring to editing, mise-en-scène and cinematography

(Perego, 2023). Besides, the cinematic AD involves the incorporation of filmic

language (such as “mid-shot”, “wide-shot”, “cut,” and “dissolve”) or more

everyday language to emphasize the perspective of the camera and the spatial

arrangement of characters and objects in the frame (Fryer & Freeman, 2013).

Furthermore, if the describer believes it can be beneficial to elucidate the

meaning of a filmic term, this can be undertaken instead of or in conjunction with

employing cinematic language (Bardini, 2020).

5) Creative

Creativity in filmmaking can be defined by the creative use of the

camera’s potential or sounds and creative editing (Bordwell, 1997). Notably, it

may seem that creative AD style is more applicable to artistic films. With the

same opinion, Szarkowska (2013) introduced a creative style called “auteur

description,” which integrates the director’s creative vision into the AD script,

deviating from strict objectivity. It uses vivid language, places description, and

visual metaphor description to immerse the BVI audiences in the film’s world,

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 9

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

incorporating ideas from the screenplay or other sources (e.g., interviews and

reviews). In this regard, the cooperation of the film production team, especially

the director, in the editing of the AD script plays a significant role in making the

final product as successful as possible (Rai, 2002).

Creative description quickly made its way among researchers, and this

time, Walczak and Fryer (2017) explored the impact of two AD styles−creative

description (CRD) and standard description (STD)−on audience presence. It

revealed that CRD, featuring vivid sentences and elevated vocabulary,

significantly heightened the audience’s emotional response. This led to higher

ratings across presence subscales and more positive evaluations than the STD.

This contrasts with Fryer and Freeman’s (2013) finding that audience preference

for AD is unrelated to familiarity. Building on this style, Walczak (2017a)

introduced a captivating AD named “creative AD,” blending film terminology and

neutral descriptions. Well-received by participants, this style enhanced the

authenticity and captivation of film-viewing experiences, proving effective for

both visually colorful and dark, realistic films. Once again, Walczak (2017b)

delved into the impact of Polish AD on audience immersion, conducting two

studies on AD style and vocal delivery. The research affirmed that creative AD

increased immersion, emphasizing the crucial role of a script in enhancing the

film-viewing experience.

6) First-person

The conventional AD uses a third-person, covert narrative style, ensuring

impartiality and minimal interference with the story. In contrast, a first-person

writing style in AD allows audience scrutiny and analysis of the narrator’s

account without the dominance seen in third-person narratives. However, a

drawback is the potential bias introduced by the limited perspective, possibly

resulting in a distorted viewpoint (Lothe, 2000). Fels et al. (2006) suggested that

using the first-person style in AD makes the viewing experience feel more

immediate. Unlike the third-person narrator, which feels distant, first-person

narration brings the audience directly into the unfolding events, making it more

engaging and less passive.

Additionally, using “I” and “me” in the first-person AD allows for the

character’s feelings and thoughts to be included, making the story more

personal. They have also tested this style on BVI audiences. Ultimately, BVI

participants preferred the first-person style over the conventional third-person

style but perceived it as less reliable.

10 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

1.4. Theoretical framework

To the authors’ best knowledge, no prior classification of AD styles has

been proposed so far. However, various subjective AD styles have been

discussed in previous literature. Based on these existing studies, this article

incorporates a literature-based classification of different AD styles to serve as

the theoretical framework (Figure 1) for the subsequent analysis.

Figure 1. The categorization of AD styles

Source. Elaborated by the authors

As depicted in Figure 1, styles can be categorized into two primary

groups: subjective and objective. In the subjective category, the most commonly

used style is the third-person perspective. A significant development in this

category occurred with the introduction of the first-person perspective as a new

AD style, proposed by Fels and colleagues (2006). This led researchers to

compare the first-person style with the third-person approach within the broader

scope of subjective styles. Some researchers have also identified several

alternative AD styles that deviate from traditional conventions−typically

AD Styles

Objective

Subjective

First Person

Narrative

Cinematic

Descriptive

Interpretive

Creative

Third Person

Narrative

Cinematic

Descriptive

Interpretive

Creative

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 11

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

associated with the objective style−which, based on the author's knowledge, are

more appropriately classified as subjective. These include narrative, cinematic,

descriptive, interpretive, and creative styles. It is important to note that both the

first-person and third-person perspectives can encompass these subcategories,

as illustrated in Figure 1. This classification reflects the current state of AD styles

up to the completion of this study.

The stylistic elements for each style were needed to analyze AD scripts

thoroughly. Therefore, a meticulous review of the distinct features of each style

was conducted, and the examples cited in relevant studies were examined. This

systematic approach identified three key stylistic elements for each style,

forming the basis for script analysis and classification of styles. These stylistic

elements include:

Styles

Major elements

Objective

• - Factual and neutral language (AENOR, 2005)

• - Not interpret personal opinions or emotions about characters

(Bardini, 2017)

• - Focus on iconic level description, devoid of mention of film

technique (Bardini, 2020)

Subjective

First-

person

• - The existence of the narrator within the plot as a character

(Lothe, 2000)

• - Using “I” or “we” to engage the audience personally (Fels et

al., 2006)

• - Providing a unique and immersive point of view (Fels et al.,

2006)

Subjective

-person

Narrative

• - Narratological approach in content selection

(Vercauteren, 2012)

• - Not necessarily describe in the exact moment

(Bardini, 2020)

• - Narrative prioritization over visual detail

(Kruger, 2010)

Cinematic

• - Employing film-related terminology (e.g., mid-

shot, wide-shot, cut) (Fryer & Freeman, 2013)

• - The spatial arrangements of characters and

objects (Fryer & Freeman, 2013)

- Elucidating the meaning of a filmic term

(Bardini, 2020)

12 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Descriptive

• - Focusing on visual elements to enhance the

audience’s understanding (Kruger, 2010)

• - Unmarked word order and choices (Jekat et

al., 2015)

• - Providing detailed visual descriptions of

scenes, characters, and actions (Jekat &

Carrer, 2018)

Interpretative

• - Marked syntactic positions in AD (Jekat et al.,

2015)

• - Decoding visual cues to reveal character

intentions and symbolic meanings (Jekat &

Carrer, 2018)

• - Evaluative adjectives, subjective descriptions

of emotions and facial expressions (Jekat &

Carrer, 2018)

Creative

- Describing places and visual metaphors

(Szarkowska, 2013)

- Incorporating ideas from the screenplay or

other sources (Szarkowska, 2013)

- Vivid language and unusual vocabulary

(Walczak, 2017a)

Table 1. Styles and their elements

Source. Elaborated by the authors

2. METHOD

The present study is based on a qualitative method to identify the

common styles employed in audio describing Persian films. The rationale behind

this approach was its exploratory nature, typically employed in uncharted

domains and endeavors to delineate novel concepts or introduce categories by

analyzing data (Dörnyei, 2007). To this end, the audio-described films in the

drama genre produced by Sevina and Gooshkon were used. The criteria based

on which film genre was selected is according to the genre with the highest

number of AD productions among the other genres of audio-described films

available. Also, the reason behind choosing these websites was because they

have gained more significant popularity among the Iranian BVI audiences.

The data collection continued until data saturation, at which point the

presence or absence of the AD styles identified in the literature was consistently

observed across the samples. Finally, 21 films were reached, 12 by the

Gooshkon group and 9 by the Sevina group. Gooshkon and Sevina are two

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popular NGOs in Iran which aim to support and empower the blind community,

and provide AD services. The disparity in the film count is beyond the

researchers’ control, resulting from the higher availability of Gooshkon products

in the drama genre.

Then, the researchers extracted 16 scripts and received five from the

producers. The three features identified for each style in the previous section

(Table 1) provided a framework for analyzing and categorizing ADs. Each

Persian AD script was systematically analyzed to determine the frequency of

occurrence for each identified style within the script. In addition, the total word

count of each script was calculated to provide context for the analysis. The

frequency data were then collected into a table, enabling comparison of style

distribution across different scripts. Based on the frequency of occurrence for

each style within a script, the most frequent style was identified and allocated to

that AD. Additionally, any new stylistic patterns or co-occurrence of more than

one style that emerged during the analysis were identified and categorized

accordingly.

Table 2 summarizes descriptive information of the 21 audio-described

films under study:

Features

Film

Production

year

Genre

Director

producer

Describer

Leila’s

brothers

2022

Drama

Saeed

Roustayi

Gooshkon

Elaheh

Lotfi

Grassland

2022

Drama / Crime

Kazem

Daneshi

Gooshkon

Zeinab

Bakhshi

Sun

children

2020

Drama

Majid Majidi

Gooshkon

Farnaz

Amiri

Drown

2020

Mystery / Drama

Mohammad

Kart

Gooshkon

Farnaz

Amiri

Killer

spider

2020

Drama

Ebrahim

Irajzad

Gooshkon

Farnaz

Amiri

Titi

2020

Drama

Ida

Panahandeh

Gooshkon

Farnaz

Amiri

14 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

The

warden

2019

Mystery / Drama

Nima Javidi

Sevina

Mohsen

Bahrami

Just 6.5

2019

Crime / Drama

Saeed

Roustayi

Sevina

Ehsan

Karami

Dance with

2019

Fantasy / Drama

Sorush

Sehhat

Sevina

Leila Otadi

Castle of

dreams

2019

Drama

Reza

Mirkarimi

Sevina

Laleh

Eskandari

The 23

2019

Drama / War

Mehdi Jafari

Sevina

Reza

Nasirzadeh

Gold

2019

Drama

Parviz

Shahbazi

Gooshkon

Farnaz

Amiri

The singer

2019

Comedy / Drama

Mostafa

Kiaei

Sevina

Gelareh

Abbasi

African

violet

2019

Drama

Mona Zandi

Sevina

Shojae

Noori

Bomb: A

love story

2018

Drama /

Romance

Peyman

Maadi

Sevina

Nima

Raeisi

Azar

2017

Drama

Mohammad

Hamzei

Gooshkon

Farnaz

Amiri

Subdued

2017

Drama

Hamid

Nematollah

Gooshkon

Farnaz

Amiri

Breath

2016

Drama

Narges

Abyar

Gooshkon

Dana

Ghaffari

Night shift

2015

Drama

Niki Karimi

Gooshkon

Farnaz

Amiri

What’s the

time in

your

world?

2014

Drama /

Romance

Safi

Yazdanian

Gooshkon

Mina Amini

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 15

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

separation

2011

Drama

Asghar

Farhadi

Sevina

Rima

Raminfar

Table 2. The list of audio-described films examined in this study

Source. Elaborated by the authors

To strengthen the validity of the qualitative evaluation, the authors used

inter-subjectivity. Two academics with expertise in AD and familiarity with the

Persian language were consulted. These academics independently reviewed a

subset of the selected data and provided their interpretations and classifications.

Any discrepancies in classification were discussed until a consensus was

reached.

3. RESULTS

The primary objective of this research was to investigate the distinct AD

styles employed within the Iranian context by two independent entities, Sevina

and Gooshkon. It is also intended to comprehensively classify the principal AD

styles utilized in Persian cinema. An essential aspect of this investigation was to

assess whether this classification aligns with the established categorization

derived from the literature review.

The distribution of AD styles was within the 21 scripts of Persian audio-

described films. Each script was systematically analyzed to figure out the

frequency of occurrence for seven identified AD styles, namely Objective (OBJ),

Narrative (NAR), Cinematic (CIN), Descriptive (DES), Interpretative (INT),

Creative (CRE), and First-person (FP). The result is presented in Table 3, which

shows the total word count and the frequency for each style within the script.

Additionally, the most frequent style for each script is identified based on the

highest frequency count. It should also be noted that due to the close frequency

counts of two or three styles, it was decided that the final style of that AD would

be called Mixed style (MIX).

Film

Total words

Objective

Narrative

Cinematic

Descriptive

Interpretative

Creative

First-person

Identified

16 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Leila’s

brothers

5600

495

4025

400

175

505

NAR

Grassland

1281

1105

OBJ

Sun

children

5054

574

744

1470

1463

593

210

MIX

(CIN+

DES)

Drown

3580

122

224

2563

544

DES

Killer

spider

1888

1426

157

164

OBJ

Titi

1836

128

1613

DED

The warden

4432

118

3300

354

212

448

NAR

Just 6.5

3754

2974

426

184

OBJ

Dance with

1629

120

590

588

203

128

MIX

(NAR +

CIN)

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 17

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Castle of

dream

2522

225

107

184

1639

367

DES

The 23

1268

886

182

OBJ

Gold

810

725

OBJ

The singer

3000

443

423

2011

DES

African

violet

3301

335

1224

138

1230

321

MIX

(NAR +

INT)

Bomb: A

love story

3195

112

2556

200

NAR

Azar

1532

189

1225

DES

Subdued

1700

1524

122

OBJ

18 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Breath

3836

198

441

1010

142

1025

1020

MIX

(CIN +

INT +

CRE)

Night shift

1257

106

1064

DES

What’s the

time in your

world?

2332

1860

139

206

OBJ

separation

6296

950

1516

478

320

1522

1510

MIX

(NAR +

INT +

CRE)

Table 3. Total word count and frequency of each AD style across 21 film scripts

Source. Elaborated by the authors

As indicated in Table 3, while some scripts mostly demonstrate a single

style, others exhibit a mix of styles. Moreover, no first-person style was found in

Persian ADs. Table 4 shows a summary of the distribution of founded Persian

AD style by percentage within the corpus of this study. The percentages

manifest the incidence of each style within the dataset, offering a better

understanding of the of Persian AD practices.

Persian AD styles

Number

Percentage

Objective

33.3%

Descriptive

28.5%

Mixed

23.8%

Narrative

14.2%

Total

100%

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 19

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Table 4. Percentage distribution of main Persian AD styles

Source. Elaborated by the authors

Additionally, the two AD producers, namely, Gooshkon and Sevina, differ

in their adopted AD styles. Within the entire corpus of this research, there are 12

films from Gooshkon products and 9 films from Sevina products. Table 5

illustrates the types of styles found in the products of each of these two groups:

Style

Producer

Objective

Descriptive

Mixed

Narrative

Sevina

Gooshkon

Table 5. Distribution of audio description styles across groups

Source. Elaborated by the authors

The Gooshkon group had more productions and was recognized for its

adept selection of films for AD production. They have consistently focused on

contemporary films addressing pertinent social issues, thus rendering them

accessible to BVI audiences. The Sevina group, led by an actress, selects

describers from a pool of celebrities, including actors, stuntmen, and various

other artists. One might expect them to exhibit greater flexibility in their choice of

styles, given their direct communication with the original film director. This is

especially relevant to the creative AD style, as emphasized by Szarkowska

(2013), who highlighted the importance of having access to screenplays. Rai

(2002) also identified such access as a key factor in producing effective AD.

For a comprehensive understanding of the identified AD styles in our

study, a film that is the most obvious example of that style has been selected for

each style. Each example is accompanied by a table, exemplifying key elements

of the corresponding style. It will help the reader to understand how each style is

applied in practice.

3.1. Objective

Grassland (2022) is a social drama film audio-described by the Gooshkon

group and made accessible through their website and Telegram channel in

2023. As per the researcher’s analysis, the AD style employed in this movie is

characterized as objective:

20 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Film

Grassland (2022)

Examples

Distinguished

style(s)

Objective

Stylistic

elements

found

- Factual and neutral language

Example 1



(Back translation (BT) : The

investigator looks at the card)

- Not interpret personal opinions

or emotions about characters

Example 2



(BT: The man hands over his

mobile phone and enters the

building with his wife.)

- Focus on iconic level description,

devoid of mention of film

technique

Example 3    



(BT: Elham and her husband

Sajjad see Sara through the

window.)

Table 6. Style information of Grassland (2022)

Source. Elaborated by the authors

Considering the first element, the investigator receives a tempting but

illegal offer from the mayor, who gives him his contact card. However, upon

returning to his room and confronting the woman who is the plaintiff in the

mayor’s case, the investigator gazes at the mayor’s card, consumed by doubt

and hesitation. But, the describer refrains from offering an interpretation of the

investigator’s response, using factual language and merely reporting that he is

looking at the card.

About Example 2, in this scene, the man and woman entering the

courthouse are visibly not in a good condition, their appearance indicating they

may be struggling with drug addiction. However, the describer refused to

interpret their appearance and simply described their arrival, leaving to the BVI

audience to notice the characters’ circumstances from their voices.

In Example 3, Sara and her husband are looking down the courtyard from

the building’s top floor and see Sara entering the court. However, the describer

avoids offering the viewer’s point of view and keeps the description at the iconic

level.

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 21

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

3.2. Descriptive

The AD of Titi (2020) was created by the Gooshkon group in 2023 and

released for free on their website and Telegram channel. According to the

analysis of this script, the AD style used here is classified as descriptive:

Film

Titi (2020)

Examples

Distinguished

style(s)

Descriptive

Stylistic

elements

found

- Focusing on visual elements to

enhance the audience’s

understanding

Example 1





(BT: Titi is sitting among the

bundles of straw, with a baby in

her arms.)

- Unmarked word order and

choices

Not applicable

- Providing detailed visual

descriptions of scenes, characters,

and actions

Example 2





(BT: Titi in a long red shirt, with

makeup and red nail polish

leaves the house.)

Table 7. Style information of Titi (2020)

Source. Elaborated by the authors

In Example 1, the describer is actively aiding the audience in deducing the

described scene by incorporating visual details. By stating “TiTi is sitting among

the bundles of straw”, the description reveals to the audience that TiTi is hiding

in a barn.

Regarding the second element, it should be said that all the structures

used in this script follow the common structures of the Persian language and are

unmarked; no marked structures were identified.

In Example 2, the descriptive AD not only provides a detailed visual image

of the character Titi but also implies a sense that the character is heading

somewhere special, perhaps a wedding. The mention of  " (‘a long

22 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

red dress’) and the application of makeup suggest an element of preparation

and desire to look at one’s best for an occasion.

3.3. Mixed

The Gooshkon group audio-described Breath (2016) premiered in 2023

on their Telegram channel and website. This film offers an emotional

atmosphere and concludes with a poignant ending. The narrator skillfully

employs three distinct styles well-suited to the film’s story:

Film

Breath (2016)

Examples

Distinguished

style(s)

Mixed: Cinematic + Interpretive +

Creative

Stylistic

elements

found

Cinematic

- Employing film-related

terminology

Example 1





(BT: In an open shot, in

the heart of the desert, a

bus is moving.)

- The spatial

arrangements of

characters and objects

Example 2





(BT: On top of the hill next

to the stream, Bahar

throws the book into the

water. The water carries

away the book.)

- Elucidating the

meaning of a filmic term

Example 3





(BT: We see from afar that

the bus is moving through

the dessert.)

Interpretative

- Marked syntactic

positions in AD

Example 4   

    



(BT: Grandma is looking at

the TV in a bad way.)

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 23

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

- Decoding visual cues

to reveal character

intentions and symbolic

meanings

Example 5 



     



(BT: It was as if Bahar had

been playing with the

cocoons and spread them

all in the room.)

- Evaluative adjectives,

subjective descriptions

of emotions and facial

expressions

Example 6



(BT: Ghafour seats in a

corner, grieving.)

Creative

- Describing places and

visual metaphors

Example 7





(BT: She arrived at school.

Iran’s Lion and Sun flag is

raised in front of her.)

- Incorporating the ideas

from the screenplay or

other sources

Not applicable

- Vivid language and

unusual vocabulary

Example 8

     

    



(BT: She twirls around in a

white dress. Her hair

dances in the wind and

flirts.)

Table 8. Style information of Breath (2016)

Source. Elaborated by the authors

Cinematic: example 1 employs film terminology by using  " (‘wide-

shot’), which is a cinematic term to describe a wide or open-angle shot that

captures a broad view of the scene (here the desert land). This term is

commonly used in filmmaking to specify the type of shot and provide the

audience with a cinematic perspective.

The “spatial arrangements of characters and objects” refer to their

positioning within the physical environment. In Example 2, the phrase “On top of

24 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

the hill next to the stream” provides spatial context by establishing the specific

setting where the scene takes place.

In the third example, we have a scene similar to the first example, but this

time, instead of using the cinematic term itself, the narrator has used the

explanation of its meaning (from a long distance away).

Interpretative: the use of marked syntax in Example 4 is quite evident.

The phrase  " is not a conventional term in the Persian language,

and when encountered, the audience readily realizes an unconventional style of

AD (here interpretive style).

The visual cue in Example 5 is the cocoons spread in the room, and the

decoding act of the describer is obvious in “It was as if Bahar had been playing

with the cocoons”.

 " (‘grieving’) in Example 6 not only is a subjective description of

Ghafoor's emotions but also describes facial expressions.

Creative: describing the atmosphere of the school with the flag of the

Lion and the Sun of Iran in Example 7 tells the audience that the film is set

during the pre-revolution era.

Example 8 uses colorful language to depict the character’s actions and

appearance. The audience can easily imagine the scene with these vivid

descriptions. Intensified vocabulary involves using words and phrases that are

emotionally charged or emphasize specific qualities. In this example, phrases

like      (‘dance and flirts’) are chosen to intensify the

description.

3.4. Narrative

The film’s AD of Bomb: A love story (2018) was crafted by Sevina group

and made available on the Filimo website.

Film

Bomb: A love story (2018)

Examples

Distinguished

style(s)

Narrative

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 25

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Stylistic

elements

found

- Narratological approach in

content selection

Example 1



(BT: Morning. It seems that the

city has calmed down after the

hustle and bustle of the las night.)

- Not necessarily describe in the

exact moment

Example 2





(BT: All the neighbors except Iraj

and Mitra have taken shelter in

the basement.)

- Narrative prioritization over visual

detail

Example 3



(BT: Saeed notices schoolmaster

outside the toilet, he’s afraid.)

Table 9. Style information of Bomb: A love story (2018)

Source. Elaborated by the authors

In Example 1, we see that the describer tries to convey the film’s

atmosphere by narrating the story instead of just describing the physical

environment of the scene. This case was predominantly highlighted throughout

the film.

The scene related to Example 2, being narrated by the describer, is the

one showing Iraj and Mitra in their apartment. However, the describer mentions

the neighbor’s presence in the basement. In fact, the next scene is about the

neighbors taking shelter in the basement.

In the last example, the schoolmaster is absent from the scene, and it’s

just Saeed trying to hide his notebook, while the describer mentions that the

schoolmaster is present outside the toilet in order to make the description

sounds more like a narration.

4. DISCUSSION

Lacking evidence on Persian AD styles, this study aimed to investigate

and classify them. The results of the analysis of the scripts from 21 audio-

described films show that the predominant style is objective (approximately 33.3,

see Table 4). This emphasizes the preference for a straightforward description

of everything on the screen, prioritizing BVIs’ clear understanding without

26 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

interference (Bardini, 2017; Jekat & Carrer, 2018; Malzer-Semlinger, 2012; Udo

et al., 2010). This statistic indicates that in Iran, AD producers, while possibly

unaware of existing guidelines and lacking a scientific basis, tend to conform to

AD guidelines (AENOR, 2005; American Council of the Blind, 2009; Benecke &

Dosch, 2004; Morisset & Gonant, 2008). The descriptive style was also

recognized as the second most frequent Persian style, with 28.5%. Besides, the

third prevalent style was the mixed one. This mixed style, blending subjective

ones, showed a nearly equal word count of subjective elements, with a

maximum difference of 10 words. Nonetheless, interpretive AD style was found

in three out of five mixed styles. This indicates that some describers in Iran

agree with scholars like Remael and Vercauteren (2007) and Snyder (2008) in

interpreting visual cues to reveal character intentions and symbolic meanings.

Narrative style had the lowest frequency, indicating that the practice of AD in

Iran does not confirm Kruger’s (2010) preference for AN.

Persian AD primarily relies on charitable efforts and lacks scientific

foundations. Interestingly, styles with a mixture of subjective styles were

identified, ranking second in frequency after objective styles. However, it is

important to note that this outcome cannot be solely attributed to the describers’

proficiency, attention to detail, or deliberate style choices. As Khoshsaligheh and

Shafiei (2021) noted in their research, Iran currently only has independent

groups producing ADs, and national television has yet to initiate the production

of accessible programs for the BVIs.

Regarding the classification of Persian AD styles in the drama genre, the

authors used the data obtained to categorize them according to the classification

presented in the theoretical framework. Thus, the classification of Persian AD

styles is presented in Figure 2 below:

Fatemeh Jomhouri, Masood Khoshsaligheh, and Azadeh Eriss 27

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

Figure 2. Persian AD styles in examined films

Source. Elaborated by the authors

Comparing Persian AD styles to existing ones in literature, revealed low

compatibility in the provided classification. Notably, the first-person style was

absent in the research sample. Additionally, cinematic, creative, and

interpretative styles were combined with other styles, rather than employed in

isolation. Notwithstanding international AD guidelines support objectivity, some

researchers are actively trying to introduce new styles and replace conventional

ones through reception research. In contrast, in Iran, the limited interaction

between researchers in this field and practitioners has hindered such progress.

In other regions, researchers employ tools like eye-tracking with reception

studies (Di Giovanni, 2014; Kruger, 2012; Mazur & Chmiel, 2016) to help

describers, facilitate decision-making, and enhance content accessibility for the

BVIs. Another notable distinction in this study is that AD for theaters and live

events in Iran is generally lacking. In contrast, other regions provide even touch

tours before performances (Djoussouf et al., 2023; Taylor & Perego, 2020).

Persian AD

Styles

Subjective

Descriptive

Narrative

Mixed

Cinrmatic+

Descriptive

Cinematic+

Narrative

Narrative+

Interpretative

Cinematic+

Interpretative+

Creative

Narrative+

Interpretative+

Creative

Objective

28 Unveiling Diversity in Audio Description Styles in Persian

Hikma 24(2) (2025), 1 - 35

CONCLUSION

The examination and analysis of the AD scripts according to the elements

obtained in part two yielded a number of interesting findings. Primarily, the

results showed a high frequency of using objective AD styles. Moreover, these

also demonstrated a tendency of AD producers towards providing on-screen

information without interfering with the BVI audience’s understanding. Also, the

Persian styles did not have much harmony with the styles in literature; for

example, the first-person style was completely absent in Persian styles. Persian

describers also tended to use a combination of several styles, and the combined

style was the third most frequent. The Gooshkon group has been more faithful to

AD guidelines in terms of objectivity than the Sevina group and has produced

more objective ADs.

The findings of the study were theoretically significant because it provided

not only the recurring styles but also a classification for them in order to shed

light on the research directions for future scholars in this field. Apart from its

theoretical implications for research, the study also has real-world applications

for audio describers, AD script writers, and AD producers because it

emphasizes the importance of style in delivering high-quality ADs, trying to

provide practical guidance to improve the quality of AD in practice.

This study focused on Persian audio-described films, highlighting future

research on distinct styles in dubbed films. This research exclusively delved into

the drama genre, prompting investigations into other genres. Emphasizing the

overlooked work of independent AD production groups, it calls for research into

potential novel styles. This article concluded by stressing the crucial role of

audience preferences in shaping future AD styles, advocating for reception

research in both style and AD as a whole.

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