ISSN: 1579-9794

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the

Integration of Translation Technologies into the

Specialised Translation Classroom

Formación de traductores en España: elementos clave

para la integración de las tecnologías de la traducción en

el aula de traducción especializada

ROSER SANCHEZ-CASTANY

castan@uji.es

Universitat Jaume I

Fecha de recepción: 17/12/24

Fecha de aceptación: 6/6/24

Abstract: The rapid evolution of technology and the increasing complexity of

language services have fundamentally altered the landscape of the

language industry. The disruptive changes that this industry has undergone

in recent decades have direct and profound consequences for the training of

future translators. In the Spanish context, university curricula have

traditionally evolved at a much slower pace compared to the industry’s

dynamic nature. This lag in adaptation means that academic programmes

are not updating as swiftly as necessary to meet new societal and market

demands. From a didactic standpoint, it is particularly challenging to

determine the training needed by future language industry professionals at a

time of change and uncertainty, such as the present one, without knowing

for sure what the future will be, at least as far as translation technology (TT)

is concerned. Consequently, designing curricula that can adequately prepare

students for the evolving demands of the industry is a complex task. This

uncertainty underscores the need for a more agile and responsive approach

to curriculum design. The main objective of this article is to identify the key

elements of curriculum design necessary for training translators in Spain,

specifically in relation to current practices in the industry concerning TT.

Given the fast-paced changes within the language industry, it seems

essential to consider a process that emphasises relatively immediate

adaptations. These adaptations should be capable of being incrementally

incorporated by trainers into the teaching and learning environments of

specialised translation. By focusing on such immediate actions, trainers can

ensure that their training programmes remain relevant and effective,

equipping future translators with the skills and knowledge they need to

succeed in a rapidly changing industry. This approach advocates for a

2 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

dynamic and flexible curriculum that evolves in tandem with technological

advancements and industry trends.

Keywords: Translation technology, Curriculum design, Undergraduate

translation programmes in Spain, Situated approach, Teaching and learning

environments

Resumen:

Palabras clave: Tecnologías de la traducción, Diseño curricular, Programas

universitarios de Traducción en España, Aprendizaje situado, Entornos de

enseñanza-aprendizaje

INTRODUCTION

The language industry clearly reflects the evolution of markets

towards increasingly technological environments, as clearly acknowledged

for many years by key industry stakeholders, such as Slator, CSA or Nimdzi,

as well as by successive European Language Industry Surveys (ELIS)

(Sánchez-Castany, 2024). Over the past four decades, the translation

market has undergone unprecedented changes instigated by the evolution of

globalisation and technological environments (O’Hagan, 2020, pp. 1-2; Sin-

wai, 2023, p. XXXI). These changes have undoubtedly resulted in a

redefinition of translators’ roles and responsibilities and the emergence of

new dynamics and forms of employment linked to the technologisation of

society (Kenny, 2020; O’Connor & Benţa, 2022). This evolution over time

has been accompanied by the exponential changes that have occurred

recently, and the alarm generated, both in the language industry and in

academia, by the emergence of disruptive technologies. In addition to

translation technologies (TT)1 that have been widely adopted in the

profession of translation for decades, the language industry has already

extensively embraced disruptive technologies (Buysschaert et al., 2018;

Pym & Torres-Simón, 2021; Van der Meer, 2020), such as neural text to

speech, real-time voice cloning, natural language processing (NLP), neural

machine translation (NMT), large language models (LLM), artificial

intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and remote interpreting, among

others.

1 For the purpose of this study, the concept and definition of translation technologies is based

on O’Brien and Rodríguez Vázquez’s (2019) proposal: “In its broadest sense translation

technology is understood to include a large array of computer tools that help translators do their

jobs, including word processors; spell, style, and grammar checkers; the World Wide Web;

corpus compilation and analysis tools; terminology management tools; translation memory tools

(TM); translation management systems (TMS); and machine translation (MT)” (p. 264).

Roser Sanchez-Castany 3

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Among the many industries that show the penetration of technology

into workspaces, translation is one of the most susceptible to automation

(Schäffner, 2020, p. 80; Van der Meer, 2020). The degree of automation in

the language industry could be increased to a considerable degree by the

adoption of certain disruptive technologies –such as NMT or LLMs–,

particularly as compared to previous TT –such as statistical machine

translation (SMT) or computer-assisted translation (CAT). In this sense,

authors such as Li (2018) and Pym and Torres-Simón (2021) propose more

or less optimistic scenarios for the future of this profession. They all point to

the automation of professionals’ tasks (management, translation, revision,

etc.) taking hold in the industry. However, it is not clear precisely what the

future scenario will be like. All these factors have had a significant impact on

the language industry, which, according to some authors, only fuels the

erroneous perception that this is an industry that can offer a cheap,

low-value labour force (Giustini, 2022).

Moreover, it is important to keep sight of the fact that technological

evolution and the automation of the translation profession have direct

consequences for the training of future translators (Kenny, 2020; Aiping &

Deliang, 2017, p. 404). However, from a teaching point of view, it is

challenging to determine the training needed by future professionals at a

time of change and uncertainty such as the one we are experiencing. We do

not know for sure what the future will be, as far as TT is concerned, and we

should bear in mind that the regulations and dynamics of administrative

processes in Spanish universities entail lengthy curriculum renewal

processes. Accordingly, many trainers are currently wondering whether we

should continue to train translators for yesterday or whether we should look

for alternatives that allow us to train them to be prepared for today or, even

better, for tomorrow. At the international level, these concerns can be

reflected in numerous initiatives providing didactic resources for TT training.

Examples of these are DigiLing (DigiLing, 2024), MultiTraiNMT

(MultiTraiNMT, 2024), DataLitMT (DataLitMT, 2024) or MATEO (Vanroy,

Tezcan & Macken, 2023), to name but a few. These types of initiative reflect

that translation didactics is to some extent aware of the rapid technological

changes happening in the profession and is reacting accordingly by

developing corresponding theories, models, methods, and resources.

The study presented here is part of a broader research project

focused on the description and analysis of the training in TT offered in

Spanish undergraduate translation programmes, as well as its level of

adaptation to the reality and trends of the industry. Since the first

undergraduate programmes in translation and interpreting were introduced

in Spain in 1990 (Muñoz Raya & ANECA, 2004, pp. 14-15), slow evolution in

4 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

the incorporation of TT into undergraduate translation curricula could be

observed (Plaza-Lara, 2014). Based on the data and information empirically

obtained, we have been able to conclude that TT currently offered in

undergraduate translation programmes, at least in Spain and despite the

above-mentioned initiatives, does not respond to the demands of the

language industry and is often based on practices that are obsolete and do

not meet real needs (Sánchez-Castany, 2022, 2023a, 2023b).

In light of these findings, it seems necessary to think of a two-speed

process: 1) the one set by the official curricula updates; and 2) the more

immediate adaptations that we can incorporate through the integration of TT

into the teaching and learning environments of specialised translation. This

second option is the proposal we will analyse here. Thus, the main objective

of this paper will be to identify the key elements of undergraduate curriculum

design for integrating TT into the specialised translation classroom.

1. HOW ARE TRANSLATION TECHNOLOGIES CURRENTLY TAUGHT IN

UNDERGRADUATE TRANSLATION PROGRAMMES IN SPAIN?

There are many pedagogical initiatives that have taken into account

training in TT since the 1980s (see Kenny, 2020 for an exhaustive list of

early adopters of TT in translator training). Nowadays, there are other

initiatives to encourage a shift towards a more significant presence of TT in

translation studies, such as that of the EMT Network, with the latest update

of its competencies’ framework (EMT Network, 2022). From a general point

of view, the models of translation competency (TC) that explicitly include TT

(see, for example, Kiraly, 2000, 2016; Kelly, 2002, 2005; Muñoz Raya &

ANECA, 2004; Katan, 2008; PACTE, 2003, 2005; González & Robert

Wagenaar, 2003; Fernández Rodríguez, 2005; Nord, 2005; Göpferich, 2009;

Bowker & Corpas Pastor, 2015) stress the need for students to be able to

critically evaluate TT and not be carried away by an excessively utilitarian

discourse. They should also be aware of the ethical aspects of the

profession that arise with the use of certain tools, as in the case of MT

(Moorkens, 2022; Forcada, 2023; Guerberof-Arenas & Moorkens, 2023;

Nousias, 2023; Rico Pérez & Sánchez Ramos, 2023). Furthermore, we note

TT occupy a very relevant place in these models of TC and, in many cases,

they are considered fundamental cross-cutting elements.

Since the adaptation of the Spanish education system to the

European Higher Education Area (EHEA), autonomy, lifelong learning and

student involvement in the teaching and learning process have been

promoted as factors that support greater competitiveness (Kenny & Doherty,

2014; Shuttleworth, 2017; Vieira Nunes, et al., 2021; Márquez Garrido,

2022, p. 6). TT is, in fact, a field in which these factors are essential for

Roser Sanchez-Castany 5

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

students to develop the necessary competencies to be able to practise

translation in the future (Hurtado Albir, 2019, p. 66).

Thanks to the above-mentioned broader research project of which this

article is a part, we could identify that, in Spain, for the 2019-2020 academic

year, there are 32 undergraduate translation programmes, with a great deal

of diversity between syllabi contents. The Spanish legislative framework and

the Libro blanco. Título de Grado en Traducción e Interpretación (Muñoz

Raya & ANECA, 2004) emphasise the generalist nature of the programmes

(Haug, 2015). However, many centres are committed to including

specialised translation or interpreting modules, often organised into

specialisation tracks. In other words, students must take two to four

specialised translation modules from the same professional field to complete

their academic training. During the first two years of the programmes,

training usually focuses on reinforcement of initial interdisciplinary blocks in

order to address, later on, the fundamental components of the specialised

tracks, which are usually taught in the second stage courses (third and

fourth years) (Sánchez-Castany, 2022). The existence of higher education

programmes offered after undergraduate programmes in our field (i.e.

master’s and PhD studies) may provide a sense of continuity of

undergraduate studies and specialisation in some areas of translation or

interpreting, among both trainers and students (Hao & Pym, 2022b).

In order to contextualise our reflection and subsequent discussion

from the perspective of curriculum design, it is essential to understand the

specialisation tracks in translation and interpreting that we have identified in

all the Spanish undergraduate translation programmes. We have observed

that all syllabi classify specialised translation modules according to textual

genres and professional fields (García-Izquierdo, 2005). In addition, modules

are usually six ECTS credits, although some are variable and range from

three to twelve ECTS credits. The range of specialisation tracks offered in

these programmes varies greatly among them. Generally speaking, some

tracks stand out, such as Translation in the fields of Law, Economics and

Finance, Technical and Scientific translation, Literary and Humanistic

translation, Audio-visual translation, Localisation, and Interpreting and

Intercultural Mediation (Sánchez-Castany, 2022).

Moreover, it is necessary to find a middle ground that moves away

from the extremes of humanism versus. efficiency. We must bear in mind

that the evolution of language industry to even more digital, connected and

technologised environments requires the use of technology by all

professionals. In the specific case of translators, instrumental skills, i.e.

those related to information mining, terminology or technology (Muñoz Raya

& ANECA, 2004, p. 122), must be combined with other knowledge, including

6 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

linguistic and cultural knowledge. In fact, according to Hurtado Albir (2019),

one of the main curricular challenges in translator training is correctly

incorporating TT into undergraduate programmes. In the author’s own

words:

Training must prepare future translator for the effective use of

specialised search engines, computer-assisted translation tools,

text alignment, accounting and budgeting management, etc.,

developing the student’s ability to adapt to new documentation

resources and technological tools, given the speed at which they

are changing. (Hurtado Albir, 2019, p. 66)

On the one hand, we agree with this idea and maintain that TT should

be presented to students in an applied and –preferably– situated manner.

Otherwise, lack of use and practice with the tools proposed in technological

modules, beyond the compulsory activities carried out within the framework

of these modules, may lead students to pass courses or even to graduate

without knowing how to use specific tools or understanding why they should

master them (Alcina, Soler & Granell, 2007, p. 232). On the other hand, we

must also be aware that the indiscriminate use of this type of technology in

specialised translation modules may not bring direct benefits to students, as

we risk losing sight of the main focus of teaching these modules, i.e.

translation.

In the case of TT’s presence in Spanish undergraduate translation

programmes, first of all, it has been analysed in Sánchez-Castany (2022)

when technological modules are taught and how many of them are taught.

Technological modules are considered to be those that belong to the areas

of Information mining, Project management, Proofreading, Editing and

Layout design, Technology and Terminology, according to the classification

made by Sánchez-Castany (2022, p. 30). It has been thus observed that, in

the first stage of undergraduate programmes (i.e. first and second year), the

most common technological modules are those of Information mining. In the

second stage (i.e. third and fourth year), the modules related to Terminology

and Proofreading, Editing and Layout design stand out. It has also been

observed that all the undergraduate translation programmes analised offer

some technological modules, although in very different quantities. Finally,

modules that are based on the teaching of TT tend to be taught mostly in the

first and third years, and the programmes usually include one or two

modules of this type (Sánchez-Castany, 2022, p. 36-37).

As a rule, TT-related content is addressed in the curricular design of

undergraduate translation programmes in a simplified way, out of context

and in the watertight compartments that technological modules represent

(Rico Pérez, 2017a, p. 82). This classic separation of technological content

Roser Sanchez-Castany 7

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

and other content into independent modules often means that students do

not establish links between all of them, do not understand the advantages of

using the tools taught beyond the practices that they can carry out in these

compulsory modules (Kelly, 2005, p. 157; Alcina, Soler & Granell, 2007,

p 232; Rico Pérez, Sánchez-Gijón & Torres-Hostench, 2018) or perceive

that, as professionals, those tools will add little value in their daily lives

(Mahfouz, 2018, p. 80). Consequently, students know and learn how to

handle certain tools, but do not always have the opportunity to use them in

an applied way in a specialised translation class (Schmidhofer & Mair, 2018,

p. 178; Zhang & Vieira Nunes, 2021, pp. 118-119). That is also reflected by

the Spanish translation trainers interviewed in Sánchez-Castany (2023b).

O’Brien and Rodríguez Vázquez (2019, p. 270) mention that the usual

tendency is for TT to be offered as an introduction in undergraduate studies

(see, for example, the work of Rodríguez Castro, 2018) and for postgraduate

studies to include technical and professional aspects linked to TT and the

evaluation of tools according to different contexts of use (see, for example,

the work of Doherty & Kenny, 2014). The authors also comment that it is

risky to make generalisations in this respect, as not all university studies,

both undergraduate and postgraduate, include the same type and quantity of

tools, as is the case of translation undergraduate programmes in Spain.

In short, as we will see below, the heterogeneity in the design of the

undergraduate programmes in Spain and the different local factors that

affect each programme (such as the existence of different translation

specialisations and language combinations or the capacity to recruit

adequate training staff, among others), complicate the task of generalising

when making proposals on the most appropriate way to offer TT in a

cross-cutting way in undergraduate translation programmes. Consequently,

this situation forces us to review the teaching approaches used to train

translators with technological skills adapted to the new scenario as quickly

and efficiently as possible.

1.1 Situated learning in translation technology training

According to the translation trainers interviewed in Sánchez-Castany

(2023b), a clear balance should be sought between two key elements: on

the one hand, technological competence and preparing future professionals

who will have to face the demands of a constantly evolving industry; on the

other hand, acquisition of all the other skills needed to work as professional

translators (O’Brien, 2012). Indeed, no standard TT teaching and learning

approach fits all possible scenarios (Zhang & Vieira Nunes, 2021, p. 119).

However, among the many teaching approaches that exist (see, for

example, Hurtado Albir, 2019), one is very suitable for the objective pursued

with the reflection developed here: situated learning.

8 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

This methodology is based on exposure to actual or simulated tasks

and working environments in a realistic way inside and outside the

classroom (Olalla-Soler, 2019, p. 68). It is very similar to other teaching

approaches, such as the socio-constructivist approach (Kiraly, 2013) or the

task and project approach (Rico Pérez, 2017b). Among the research on TT

teaching and learning environments that follow this approach, we should

stress the works of Ramírez Polo and Ferrer Mora (2010) and

González-Davies and Enríquez-Raído (2016) on TT, in general; those of

Bowker and Marshman (2010), Mellinger (2017) and Vieira Nunes et

al.(2021) on computer-assisted translation (CAT); those of Pym (2013) and

Mellinger (2018) on machine translation (MT); and that of Borja Albi (2019)

on corpora. According to this teaching approach, in addition to the

technology modules themselves, TT would be presented to students in

translation environments that are as similar as possible to those they will

face in the future as professionals in the industry. In other words, TT should

not only be offered as part of a separate technology module but integrated

into practical translation modules due to its transversal nature.

The proposals of some researchers and trainers who advocate the

integration of TT in practical translation modules in a situated way stand out,

as in the case of Pym (2013), Mellinger (2017) or Hu (2018). However, as

these same authors comment, putting this situated approach to TT into

practice in the translation classroom is challenging. As mentioned by O’Brien

and Rodríguez Vázquez (2019, p. 271), these include, among others, the

availability of adequate infrastructure, funding, group size, students’ previous

knowledge of TT, language combinations, the field of specialisation and the

teaching approach adopted.

Taking this proposal as a starting point, widely endorsed by authors

such as Alcina (2008), Sánchez Nieto et al. (2009), Enríquez-Raído (2013),

Díaz Fouces (2013), Kiraly (2013), Pym (2013), Kenny and Doherty (2014),

Plaza-Lara (2014), Mellinger (2017, 2018), Hu (2018), Torres del Rey

(2019), González Pastor (2021) and Sánchez-Castany (2023b), it is

necessary to conduct an in-depth analysis of some elements of curriculum

design, such as the availability of physical and digital media, content

sequencing, trainers’ training and coordination, and collaboration between

academia and industry (see section 3).

2. KEY ELEMENTS FOR CROSS-CUTTING INTEGRATION OF TRANSLATION

TECHNOLOGIES IN THE SPECIALISED TRANSLATION CLASSROOM

In the main models of undergraduate translation curriculum design

(see Kelly, 2005 or Hurtado Albir, 2019, among others), we observe a series

of general trends regarding the phases that should be followed to plan

Roser Sanchez-Castany 9

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

undergraduate programmes: analysis of learning needs, determining the

competencies and learning objectives, selecting the contents, designing the

methodology, selecting the media, establishing the sequencing and

designing assessment procedures. Covering all these phases or elements is

essential to achieve an effective curriculum design that fosters integrated

and practical learning, both in translation and in TT. The methodology design

phase is particularly relevant in this context.

As mentioned in the previous section, adopting a situated approach

with significant technological content in specialised translation classes would

allow students to internalise the conceptual and procedural knowledge of TT

studied in technological modules and understand its usefulness in an applied

way, as suggested by Alcina, Soler and Granell (2007) or Vieira Nunes et al.

(2021), among others. In line with these authors, who suggest applying

situated learning as a TT teaching approach and based on the results of the

previous studies by Sánchez-Castany mentioned above, in this paper we will

analyse the key elements for such integration from the point of view of

curriculum design. After analysing the aforementioned models of curriculum

design, we observed that combining some elements of curriculum design

would help recreate the real working conditions of a translation professional

using the necessary TT tools. As can be seen in Figure 1, we will focus on

four elements: availability of physical and digital media, sequencing of TT-

related contents, trainers’ training in TT and coordination between them, and

collaboration between academia and industry, which we will analyse in detail

below.

10 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Figure 1. Proposal of key elements for the integration of TT in the specialised

translation classroom

Source: Elaborated by the author

2.1 Availability of physical and digital media

The first element we have selected for our analysis is the physical and

digital media available to an undergraduate programme. The fact that, at

present, professional translation environments work almost exclusively with

digital materials (Hickey, 2022) means that undergraduate programmes

must adapt the means available to them for teaching translation. Practical

sessions in technology modules should take place in computer rooms

(Doherty & Moorkens, 2013, pp. 127-128; Pym, 2019). However, this is not

always so evident in the case of practical translation classes. In fact,

learning to translate does not necessarily involve the use of digital media,

and some authors even consider that it may be beneficial if learners’ first

contact with translation practice does not involve the use of computers

(Mossop, 2003, p. 20).

However, learning to translate as it is currently done in the

professional world requires the use of a minimum of physical and digital

resources, such as a computer with general and specific software and an

Internet connection (Akhulkova, Hickey & Hynes, 2021; Sánchez-Castany,

2022). We must bear in mind that, in Spain, especially in public universities,

higher translation training centres do not always have the necessary funding

to have adequate resources, as reflected by the Spanish translation trainers

interviewed in Sánchez-Castany (2023b, p. 8). This means that there is not

always availability of classrooms equipped with computers so that students

can carry out the activities proposed in class, emulating real working

environments as far as possible. Besides, this lack of funding means that it

is not always possible to buy licences for paid TT-related software.

Fortunately, this could be partially addressed thanks to open-source tools

available for didactic purposes today. Great examples of that are Peter

Sandrini’s collection of open-source TT (Sandrini, 2024), the OPUS corpus

collection (Tiedemann, 2011), Google’s free Colab Jupyter notebook offering

(Google Colaboratory, n.d.), or the free academic plans offered by some

leading companies in the language industry, such as Phrase (Phrase, 2024)

to mention just a few.

All in all, the availability of adequate physical and digital media would

favour students’ autonomous learning, which is essential in a learning

process such as TT, a field that requires many hours of practice to

internalise routines and processes (Matamala, 2006; Austermühl, 2013;

Vieira Nunes et al., 2021).

Roser Sanchez-Castany 11

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

2.2 Sequencing of TT-related contents

The second element of our analysis is the sequencing of TT-related

content within undergraduate translation programmes. From a general point

of view, the competencies and contents of university undergraduate

programmes should not only cover the professional sphere but also the

social, interpersonal and personal spheres. Currently, university education

has a clear professionalising orientation (Katan, 2011; Hurtado Albir, 2019),

but there are more and more voices that advocate an approach that

accommodates the comprehensive training of people. In this vein, we agree

with Mossop (2003, pp. 20-21) when he stated, more than 20 years ago, that

if a person does not know how to translate with a pencil and paper, they will

not know how to translate with the latest technologies. However, this does

not in any way exclude the possibility that, once the translation competence

to translate without the aid of technology has been achieved, learners

cannot also do so using, in this case, TT.

The sequencing of content is key in curriculum design and directly

impacts the training of undergraduate translation students (Hurtado Albir,

2019). Key factors that should be taken into account when sequencing the

TT-related contents of an undergraduate translation programme include

defining the specialisation, the structure of the tracks and the acquisition of

cross-cutting competencies (not only technological, but information mining,

linguistic, etc.) pedagogically prior or subsequent to training in translation.

There is great variation in the sequencing of the content and the

technological and specialised translation modules in undergraduate

translation programmes in Spain for the 2019-2020 academic year.

However, some general trends can be observed. On the one hand, it could

be said that, on paper, the content included in the technological modules

covers the minimum technological needs of a professional translator (see

Akhulkova et al., 2021, for further reference on professional uses of TT). On

the other hand, the conceptual, procedural and attitudinal content included in

technological modules (especially those taught in the first cycle) tends to be

taught long before students will need to use them in an applied way in

specialised translation modules, typically taught in the second cycle of the

programme (Sánchez-Castany, 2022, p. 36).

As mentioned at the end of section 2, many authors argue that the

teaching of TT should be approached as a cross-cutting element or one that

runs horizontally through the curriculum. In order to introduce TT in the

specialised translation classroom in a situated and transversal way, it is first

necessary for the modules traditionally considered instrumental (see section

2) to fulfil that role in practice—that is, they should not only be labelled as

instrumental in theory, but also function as such in actual teaching and

12 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

learning settings. There should be a transfer of content from these to the

practical modules of specialised translation. On the other hand, the selection

of tools to be used in practical translation sessions should take into account

that they should not represent a technical challenge either for trainers or, of

course, for students, among other factors (for example, using tools that do

not require installation); or that their use and learning from previously-

acquired knowledge is simple (Aiping & Deliang, 2017, pp. 403-405)—as is

the case of some cloud-based CAT tools, such as MateCat

(https://www.matecat.com/) and Phrase (https://phrase.com/es/).

2.3 Trainers’ training and coordination

To analyse the third element, we will need to explore on the one hand,

trainers’ training in TT and, on the other, coordination between them when

teaching within the same undergraduate programme.

One of the main factors that directly affect translators’ training is

undergraduate programme trainers themselves and their training, in this

case, in TT (Kelly, 2005, pp. 53-60 and 150-156). Generally speaking, and

depending on the institutional, local or national contexts, trainers’ training in

higher education institutions is set out more or less strictly in various

regulatory frameworks (e.g. regulations, directives, or legislation) (Massey,

2019, p. 386). However, as Kelly (2008, p. 101) noted more than 15 years

ago, “most TS [Translation Studies] literature about training is written in

general terms about processes and activities, but much less about the

people involved, whether they be students or teachers”, something which,

apparently, has not changed much over the years (Klimkowski, 2015, p. 231;

Massey, 2019, p. 386).

Among the research about trainers’ competencies and their training in

areas related to the professional practice of translation, we should mention

the works of Kelly (2005, pp. 150-156), Gouadec (2007, pp. 350-356),

Klimkowski (2015, pp. 231-253), Orlando (2016, pp. 17-38), Huang (2019),

Massey (2019), and Hao and Pym (2022a). We fully agree with these

authors, who argue that it is vital for translation trainers to receive adequate

and continuous training in order to carry out their teaching work, both inside

and outside the classroom. Although this is a general idea and might seem

obvious, if we apply it to TT and its rapid evolution, the technological

updating of translation trainers becomes even more important. In fact, in

order to carry out their training task effectively, translation trainers need

specific and continuous training to keep up with changes in the industry,

which is not always the case (Krajcso, 2011, p. 271; Aiping & Deliang, 2017,

p. 403). In this same vein, although this is a study focused on master’s

degrees and not on undergraduate programmes, it is worth noting the work

Roser Sanchez-Castany 13

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

of Li (2018), who observed that 99 translation master’s degree programmes

in China do not include any TT module. In most cases, this is because

universities do not have training staff adequately trained for this purpose.

The training and knowledge that trainers have in both TT and TT training will

directly impact the possibility of integrating TT into the specialised translation

classroom.

As for the second aspect of this element, coordination between

trainers, this is a sine qua non for the successful integration of TT in

specialised translation modules. Good coordination between trainers of

different modules within the same programme contributes to knowledge

transfer from instrumental modules to translation modules themselves (Kelly,

2005, pp. 58-60). According to the information provided by the universities

on their curricula (i.e. that stated in module syllabi), some transfer of content

between instrumental and translation modules can be observed (see

Sánchez-Castany, 2022, pp. 37-38). This might lead us to think that trainers

in charge of these modules are minimally coordinated to present the content

to students so that their learning is as progressive and adapted as possible

to the training, skills and competencies of the students at that time.

However, other studies show that such coordination is not always present in

undergraduate translation programmes (see, for example, Ramírez Polo &

Ferrer Mora, 2010, p. 35 and Sánchez-Castany 2023b in the case of Spain;

or Sánchez-Castany et al., 2022 in the case of Switzerland).

2.4 Collaboration between academia and industry

Finally, in our analysis is the collaboration between two fields often

conceived as independent: academia and industry. According to the

aforementioned models of translation curriculum design (Kelly, 2005;

Hurtado Albir, 2019), the first step in designing a university curriculum is to

analyse the social and professional demands of the context for which

students are to be trained and their learning needs, i.e. the industry.

As a natural response to the globalisation and technologisation that

characterises the society in which we live, the language industry and, by

extension, the translation market have undergone profound structural

changes in recent decades (O’Hagan, 2020, pp. 1-2). This evolution is not

always reflected in undergraduate translation curricula, at least in Spain

(Austermühl, 2013, p. 327; Cid-Leal, Espín-García and Presas, 2019;

Sánchez-Castany, 2022, pp. 39-40). The truth is that academia cannot keep

pace with technological advances in the same way as companies in the

language industry do due, among other things, to financial or knowledge

constraints (Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2020, p. 124).

14 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

The efforts made by academia to bridge this gap include the

organisation of talks, courses and conferences by the universities

themselves or by companies and professionals in the industry (see the

initiatives of TAUS, 2017); the offer of curricular and extracurricular

internships provided by some university translation programmes; and

mentoring programmes. The last include those offered by professional

associations (see also the initiatives of Spanish associations such as

ASETRAD or ACE Traductores, or international ones such as ATA or ALTA),

by the universities themselves in collaboration with them (for example, the

collaboration programme between APTIC and two Catalan universities, in

Olalla-Soler 2019), or by companies and organisations in the industry (see

the Proz.com mentoring programme or the MEPROACTI Project, in Bolaños

Medina & Rivas Güida, 2022). From a teaching point of view, these

programmes apply a situated learning approach and are usually based on

collaborative learning, where the main role of the mentor (professional) is not

to instruct but to accompany the mentee (student) in the learning process

(Olalla-Soler, 2019, p. 68). The collaboration between trainers and

professionals in these initiatives can be very varied. For example, it may be

the case that the trainer is professionally engaged in translation on a part-

time basis and offers professional mentoring; or that the industry

professional is involved in a translation project in the classroom, helping with

the shaping of the project or the translation quality assessment (Marczak &

Bondarenko, 2022, p. 120).

As we have seen, the measures taken to bridge the gap between

academia and industry can be very diverse. It is crucial that any such

initiative considers the interests of both parties and is developed

systematically, taking into account all factors affecting the market

(professionals, companies, associations, etc.) and the academia (translation

centres themselves and undergraduate translation programmes) in each

specific teaching and learning situation. Accordingly, for this collaboration to

work correctly, it is vital not to lose sight of the ethical issues involved not

only in the use by professionals of specific tools, such as neural MT or

AI-based applications, but also in their training and learning by trainers and

students. In this field, we should mention the work of Baker and Maier (2011)

on ethical issues in the training of translators and interpreters; Moorkens

(2022) on ethical issues in MT; and the volume edited by Moniz and Parra

Escartín (2023) on ethical and legal considerations in MT, in which the

contributions of Forcada (2023), Guerberof-Arenas and Moorkens (2023),

Nousias (2023) and Rico Pérez and Sánchez Ramos (2023) stand out for

their relevance and contribution to the field.

Roser Sanchez-Castany 15

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Teaching and learning environments for specialised translation in

undergraduate translation programmes are one of the most suitable training

spaces for integrating TT into the classroom in a situated way. If this

integrated and coordinated approach were to be adopted in undergraduate

translation programmes, students would acquire a realistic and global vision

of the profession, as well as adequate training in TT and the current

translation process.

To achieve this goal, TT should not be relegated to the watertight

compartments of the current technological modules in which they are usually

included in the Spanish undergraduate translation programmes, but should

run horizontally through the whole curriculum. The analysis presented in this

study identifies four essential elements of curriculum design that have

allowed us to better understand how TT could be successfully integrated into

specialised translation teaching and learning environments. From the

analysis of these elements, we highlight, on the one hand, the need to have

the appropriate physical and digital means to achieve a teaching and

learning environment for specialised translation with TT as the main

technological tool. On the other hand, we believe it is essential to apply a

sequencing of content that allows students to reach the final years of the

undergraduate programme with the necessary technological knowledge to

face working environments that include the TT that they will use in real

professional environments in the near future. Furthermore, there must be

adequate training for the training staff to design and develop a training

proposal like the one presented in this paper. Likewise, coordination

between the trainer in charge of technological modules and specialised

translation modules will be essential to encourage a sequencing of content

that is as closely aligned as possible with the training needs of students at

each stage of the undergraduate programme. Finally, it is essential to

establish good communication between industry and academia, so that the

former informs the latter about issues so that higher education centres for

translators can take the pulse of the industry, adjust their offer as much as

possible, and promote initiatives to try to bridge the existing gap between

both of them.

These four elements lead us to put forward a generic and circular

proposal for integrating TT in the specialised translation classroom. The

viability and success of this integration depend not only on the existence of

these four elements but also on the design and development of a

cross-cutting curriculum.

16 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Finally, we should remember the fact that a proposal of this nature will

pose a series of challenges for any undergraduate programme that wishes

to integrate TT into a specialised translation classroom. For this reason, it

would be very appropriate for the continuity of our reflection to delve deeper

into what these challenges will be from the point of view of curriculum design

and university planning.

To conclude, we must bear in mind that there are aspects of

undergraduate curriculum planning that will determine the viability of

proposals such as the one we have presented in this paper. All in all, we

believe that the only way to avoid delaying the adaptation of undergraduate

translation programmes to the technological needs of the language industry

is to carry out a series of curricular adaptations that can be relatively

immediately incorporated into the reality of the classroom, with all the

provisos we have described and analysed above, without having to wait for

the formal renewal of curricula.

REFERENCES

Aiping, M. & Deliang, M. (2017). The ecosystem of translator workstation:

Learning electronic tools in a training program for professional

translators in China. Babel, 63(3), 401‑422.

https://doi.org/10.1075/babel.63.3.06aip

Akhulkova, Y., Hickey, S. & Hynes, R. (2021). Nimdzi Language Technology

Atlas: the Definitive Guide to the Language Technology Landscape.

Nimdzi. https://www.nimdzi.com/language-technology-atlas/

Alcina, A. (2008). Translation Technologies: Scope, Tools and Resources.

Target, 20(1), 79-102. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.20.1.05alc

Alcina, A., Soler, V. & Granell, J. (2007). Translation technology skills

acquisition. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 15(4), 230‑244.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050802280179

Austermühl, F. (2013). Future (and not-so-future) trends in the teaching of

translation Technology. Revista Tradumàtica. Tecnologies de la

Traducció, 11, 326-337. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/tradumatica.46

Baker, M. & Maier, C. (2011). Ethics in Interpreter & Translator Training. The

Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 5(1), 1‑14.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13556509.2011.10798809

Bolaños Medina, A. & Rivas Güida, L. (2022). Hacia un programa de

mentoría profesional para estudiantes de máster en traducción. In C,

M. Travieso González, S. T. Pérez Suárez, J. M. Canino Rodríguez, J.

Roser Sanchez-Castany 17

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

B. Alonso Hernández, A. Ravelo García & D. C. Sánchez Rodríguez

(Eds.), Libro de Actas de las IX Jornadas Iberoamericanas de

Innovación Educativa en el Ámbito de las TIC y las TAC

(InnoEducaTIC 2022) (pp. 105-114) Universidad de Las Palmas de

Gran Canaria. https://accedacris.ulpgc.es/handle/10553/119597

Borja Albi, A. (2019). How corpora can assist legal translation learners: The

GENTT TransToolsCorpora platform and Sketch Engine. Quaderns

de Filologia: Estudis Lingüístics, XXIV, 21-38.

https://doi.org/10.7203/qf.24.16297

Bowker, L. & Corpas Pastor, G. (2015). Translation Technologies. In R.

Mitkov (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Computational Linguistics (2

ed.) (pp. 871–905). Oxford University Press.

https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199573691.013.007

Bowker, L. & Marshman, E. (2010). Toward a Model of Active and Situated

Learning in the Teaching of Computer-Aided Translation: Introducing

the CERTT Project. Journal of Translation Studies, 13(1-2), 199-226.

Buysschaert, J., Fernández-Parra, M., Kerremans, K., Koponen, M. & van

Egdom, G. (2018). Embracing Digital Disrupitonin Translator Training:

Technology Immersion in Simulated Translation Bureaus. Revista

Tradumàtica. Tecnologies de la Traducció, 16, 125-133.

https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/tradumatica.209

Cid-Leal, P., Espín-García, M. C. & Presas, M. (2019). Traducción

automática y posedición: perfiles y competencias en los programas de

formación de traductores. MonTI. Monografías de Traducción e

Interpretación, 11, 187-214. https://doi.org/10.6035/MonTI.2019.11.7

DataLitMT. (n.d.). Welcome to the DataLitMT Project. DataLitMT. Retrieved

June 6, 2024, from https://itmk.github.io/The-DataLitMT-Project/

Díaz Fouces, Ó. (2013). Algunas consideraciones sobre el papel de las

tecnologías en los Estudios de Traducción y en la formación de

traductores. Hikma, 18(1), 57-84.

https://doi.org/10.21071/hikma.v18i1.11188

DigiLing. (n.d.). About. DigiLing. Retrieved June 6, 2024, from

http://www.digiling.eu/

Doherty, S. & Kenny, D. (2014). The design and evaluation of a Statistical

Machine Translation syllabus for translation students. The Interpreter

and Translator Trainer, 8(2), 295-315.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2014.937571

18 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Doherty, S. & Moorkens, J. (2013). Investigating the experience of

translation technology labs: pedagogical implications. Journal of

Specialised Translation, 19, 122-136.

EMT Network. (2022). European Master’s in Translation Competence

Framework. European Commission.

https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/about_the_european_com

mission/service_standards_and_principles/documents/emt_competen

ce_fwk_2022_en.pdf

Enríquez-Raído, V. (2013). Teaching Translation Technologies ‘Everyware’:

Towards a Self-Discovery and Lifelong Learning Approach. Revista

Tradumàtica. Tecnologies de la Traducció, 11, 275-285.

https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/tradumatica.52

Fernández Rodríguez, M. (2005). El enfoque por tareas en la enseñanza de

la tradumática (Traducción y Tecnologías de la Información y la

Comunicación). Propuesta pedagógica. In M. L. Romana García

(Ed.), Actas del II Congreso Internacional AIETI 2005. Formación,

investigación y profesión. AIETI. https://www.aieti.eu/wp-

content/uploads/AIETI_2_MFR_Enfoque.pdf

Forcada, M. (2023). Licensing and Usage Rights of Language Data in

Machine Translation. In H. Moniz & C. Parra Escartín (Eds.), Towards

Responsible Machine Translation. Ethical and Legal Considerations in

Machine Translation (pp. 49‑69). Springer Cham.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14689-3

García-Izquierdo, I. (2005). El género textual y la traducción. Reflexiones

teóricas y aplicaciones pedagógicas. Peter Lang.

Giustini, D. (2022). The Language Industry, Automation, and the Price of

Finding the Right Words. Futures of Work, 21.

https://futuresofwork.co.uk/2022/02/10/the-language-industry-

automation-and-the-price-of-finding-the-right-words/

González Pastor, D. (2021). Introducing Machine Translation in the

Translation Classroom: A Survey on Students’ Attitudes and

Perceptions. Revista Tradumàtica. Tecnologies de la Traducció, 19,

47-65. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/tradumatica.273

González, J. & Wagenaar, R. (2003). Tuning Educational Structures in

Europe. Informe final. Fase uno. Universidad de Deusto.

González-Davies, M. & Enríquez-Raído, V. (2016). Situated learning in

translator and interpreter training: bridging research and good

Roser Sanchez-Castany 19

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

practice. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 10(1), 1‑11.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2016.1154339

Google Colaboratory. (n.d.). About. Google Colaboratory. Retrieved June 6,

2024, from https://colab.google/

Göpferich, S. (2009). Towards a model of translation competence and its

acquisition: The longitudinal study ‘TransComp’. In S. Göpferich, A. L.

Jakobsen & I. Mees (Eds.), Behind the Mind: Methods, Models and

Results in Translation Process Research (pp. 11–37).

Samsfundslitteratur.

Gouadec, D. (2007). Translation as a profession. John Benjamins.

https://doi.org/10.1075/btl.73

Guerberof-Arenas, A. & Moorkens, J. (2023). Ethics and Machine

Translation: The End User Perspective. In H. Moniz & C. Parra

Escartín (Eds.), Towards Responsible Machine Translation. Ethical

and Legal Considerations in Machine Translation (pp. 113‑133).

Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14689-3

Hao, Y. & Pym, A. (2022a). Teaching how to teach translation: tribulations of

a tandem-learning model. Perspectives, 30(2), 275-291.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2021.1913197

Hao, Y. & Pym, A. (2022b). Where do translation students go? A study of the

employment and mobility of Master graduates. The Interpreter and

Translator Trainer, 17(2), 211-229.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2022.2084595

Haug, G. E. (2015). Grados y másteres en España y el espacio europeo de

educación superior (EEES). Monografías CRUE Universidades

Españolas. https://www.crue.org/wp-

content/uploads/2020/02/Gradosymasteres_GuyHaug.pdf

Hickey, S. (2022). The 2022 Nimdzi 100: The Ranking of Top 100 Largest

Language Service Providers. Nimdzi Insights, LLC.

https://www.nimdzi.com/nimdzi-100-top-lsp/

Hu, W. (2018). Education, Translation and Global Market Pressures.

Curriculum Design in China and the UK. Palgrave Macmillan.

Huang, Z. (2019). What Makes an Effective Translation Teacher? A

Qualitative Exploration of Effective Translation Teaching and

Teachers in the University Classroom [Doctoral dissertation,

Macquarie University]. Macquarie University Theses.

http://hdl.handle.net/1959.14/1282123

20 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Hurtado Albir, A. (2019). La investigación en didáctica de la traducción.

Evolución, enfoques y perspectivas. MonTI. Monografías de

Traducción e Interpretación, 11, 47-76.

https://doi.org/10.6035/monti.2019.11.2

Katan, D. (2008). University Training, Competencies and the Death of the

Translator. Problems in Professionalizing Translation and in the

Translation Profession. In M. T. Musacchio & G. Henrot (Eds.),

Tradurre: Formazione e Professione (pp. 113‑140). CLEUP.

Katan, D. (2011). Occupation or profession. A survey of the translator's

world. In R. Sela-Shefy & M. Schlesinger (Eds). Identity and Status in

Translational Professions (pp. 65-87). John Benjamins.

https://doi.org/10.1075/tis.4.2.04kat

Kelly, D. (2002). Un modelo de competencia traductora: bases para el

diseño curricular. Puente, 1, 9–20.

Kelly, D. (2005). A Handbook for Translator Trainers: A Guide to Reflective

Practice. St. Jerome.

Kenny, D. & Doherty, S. (2014). Statistical Machine Translation in the

Translation Curriculum: Overcoming Obstacles and Empowering

Translators. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 8(2), 276‑294.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2014.936112

Kenny, D. (2020). Technology in Translator Training. In M. O’Hagan (Ed.),

The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Technology

(pp. 498‑515) Routledge.

Kiraly, D. (2000). A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education:

Empowerment from Theory to Practice. St. Jerome.

Kiraly, D. (2013). Towards a view of translator competence as an emergent

phenomenon: thinking outside the box(es) in translator education. In

D. Kiraly, S. Hansen-Schirra & K. Maksymski (Eds.), New Prospects

and Perspectives for Educating Language Mediators (pp. 197‑222).

Gunter Narr.

Klimkowski, K. (2015). Towards a Shared Curriculum in Translator and

Interpreter Education. Wydawnictwo WSF we Wrocławiu, PAN o. we

Wrocławiu, International Communicology Institute.

Krajcso, Z. (2011). Fostering social competence in translation studies.

Babel, 57(3), 269‑282. https://doi.org/10.1075/babel.57.3.02kra

Roser Sanchez-Castany 21

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Li, D. (2018). Teaching of Translation Technology: Curriculum, Methods and

Teacher Education [Paper presentation]. Fourth International

Conference on Research into the Didactics of Translation, Barcelona,

Spain. http://grupsderecerca.uab.cat/pacte/en/node/585

Mahfouz, I. (2018). Attitudes to CAT Tools: Application on Egyptian

Translation Students and Professionals. Arab World English Journal,

4, 69‑83. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/call4.6

Marczak, M. & Bondarenko, O. (2022). Translator education in Poland and

Ukraine: does the academia vs industry gap persist? The Interpreter

and Translator Trainer, 16(1), 115‑134.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2021.1891516

Márquez Garrido, R. (2022). Análisis de las competencias traductológicas

de los egresados de estudios de Posgrado especializados. Panorama

actual en España y expectativas del mercado laboral [Doctoral

dissertation, Universidad de Córdoba]. Tesis Doctorales UCO.

http://hdl.handle.net/10396/23287

Massey, G. (2019). Translation teacher training. In S. Laviosa & M.

González-Davies (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Translation and

Education (pp. 285‑399). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/bo

oks/e/9780367854850

Matamala, A. (2006). Les noves tecnologies en l’ensenyament de la

traducció audiovisual [Paper presentation]. X Jornades de Traducció i

d'Interpretació. Tecnologies a l’abast, Vic, Spain.

Mellinger, C. D. (2017). Translators and machine translation: knowledge and

skills gaps in translator pedagogy. The Interpreter and Translator

Trainer, 11(4), 280‑293.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2017.1359760

Mellinger, C. D. (2018). Problem-based Learning in Computer-assisted

Translation Pedagogy. HERMES. Journal of Language and

Communication in Business, 57, 195-208.

https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v0i57.106205

Moniz, H., & Parra Escartín, C. (2023). Towards Responsible Machine

Translation. Ethical and Legal Considerations in Machine Translation.

Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14689-3

Moorkens, J. (2022). Ethics and machine translation. In D. Kenny (Ed.),

Machine translation for everyone. Empowering users in the age of

artificial intelligence (pp. 121‑140). Language Science Press.

22 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Mossop, B. (2003). What should be taught at translation school? In A. Pym,

C. Fallada, J. R. Biau & J. Orenstein (Eds.), Innovation and

E‑Learning in Translator Training. Reports on Online Symposia

(pp. 20‑22). Universitat Rovira i Virgili.

MultiTraiNMT. (n.d.). Presentación del Proyecto. Retrieved June 6, 2024,

from https://www.multitrainmt.eu/index.php/es/inicio/presentacion-del-

proyecto

Muñoz Raya, E. & ANECA. (2004). Libro Blanco. Título de Grado en

Traducción e Interpretación. Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la

Calidad y Acreditación.

https://www.aneca.es/documents/20123/63950/libroblanco_traduc_de

f.pdf/c597839f-973e-5e7c-86b1-e61dea66c628?t=1654601712731

Nord, C. (2005). Training functional translators. In M. Tennent (Ed.), Training

for the New Millennium: Pedagogies for translation and interpreting

(pp. 209–223). John Benjamins.

Nousias, A. (2023). The Ethics of Machine Translation. In H. Moniz & C.

Parra Escartín (Eds.), Towards Responsible Machine Translation.

Ethical and Legal Considerations in Machine Translation (pp. 29‑48).

Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14689-3

O’Brien, S. & Rodríguez Vázquez, S. (2019). Translation and technology. In

S. Laviosa & M. González Davies (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of

Translation and Education (pp. 264-277). Routledge.

O’Brien, S. (2012). Translation as human – Computer interaction.

Translation Spaces, 1(1), 101‑122. https://doi.org/10.1075/ts.1.05obr

O’Connor, P. & Benţa, M. I. (2022). The Technologisation of the Social. A

Political Anthropology of the Digital Machine. Routledge.

O’Hagan, M. (2020). Introduction. Translation and technology: disruptive

entanglement of human and machine. In M. O’Hagan (Ed.), The

Routledge handbook of translation and technology (pp. 1-18).

Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315311258

Olalla-Soler, C. (2019). Bridging the gap between translation and interpreting

students and freelance professionals. The mentoring programme of

the Professional Association of Translators and Interpreters of

Catalonia. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 13(1), 64‑85.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2018.1540741

Orlando, M. (2016). Training 21st century translators and interpreters: At the

crossroads of practice, research and pedagogy. Frank & Timme.

Roser Sanchez-Castany 23

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

PACTE. (2003). Building a Translation Competence Model. In F. Alves (Ed.),

Perspectives in Process Oriented Research (pp. 43-66). John

Benjamins.

PACTE. (2005). Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and

Methodological Issues. Meta, 50(2), 609-619.

https://doi.org/10.7202/011004ar

Phrase. (n.d.). How to Get the Academic Plan (TMS). Phrase. Retrieved

June 6, 2024, from https://support.phrase.com/hc/en-

us/articles/5881369075612-How-to-Get-the-Academic-Plan-TMS

Plaza-Lara, C. (2014). La enseñanza de la traducción asistida por

ordenador: análisis didáctico-curricular y propuesta de integración de

la subcompetencia instrumental profesional en el aula [Doctoral

dissertation, Universidad de Málaga]. Repositorio Institucional de la

Universidad de Málaga. http://hdl.handle.net/10630/8126

Pym, A. (2013). Translation Skill-Sets in a Machine-Translation Age. Meta,

58(3), 487‑503. https://doi.org/10.7202/1025047ar

Pym, A. (2019). Teaching translation in a multilingual practice class. In D. B.

Sawyer, F. Austermühl & V. Enríquez Raído (Eds.), The Evolving

Curriculum in Interpreter and Translator Education. Stakeholder

perspectives and voices (pp. 319‑340). John Benjamins.

https://doi.org/10.1075/ata.xix

Pym, A., & Torres-Simón, E. (2021). Efectos de la automatización en las

competencias básicas del traductor: la traducción automática

neuronal. In A. Vidal Suñe & A. Alarcón Alarcón (Eds.), Ocupaciones

y lenguaje. Indicadores y análisis de competencias lingüísticas en el

ámbito laboral (pp. 475-506). Publicacions de la Universitat Rovira i

Virgili.

Ramírez Polo, L., & Ferrer Mora, H. (2010). Aplicación de las TIC en

Traducción e Interpretación en la Universidad de Valencia:

experiencias y reflexiones. Revista Electrónica de Didáctica de la

Traducción y la Interpretación, 4, 23-41.

https://hdl.handle.net/10550/77235

Rico Pérez, C. & Sánchez Ramos, M. del M. (2023). The Ethics of Machine

Translation Post-editing in the Translation Ecosystem. In H. Moniz &

C. Parra Escartín (Eds.), Towards Responsible Machine Translation.

Ethical and Legal Considerations in Machine Translation (pp. 95‑112).

Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14689-3

24 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Rico Pérez, C. (2017a). La formación de traductores en Traducción

Automática. Revista Tradumàtica. Tecnologies de la Traducció, 15,

75-96. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/tradumatica.200

Rico Pérez, C. (2017b). The ePortfolio: Constructing learning in translation

technology. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 11(1), 79‑95.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2017.1306995

Rico Pérez, C., Sánchez-Gijón, P. & Torres-Hostench, O. (2018). The

challenge of machine translation post-editing: An academic

perspective. In G. Corpas Pastor & I. Durán-Muñoz (Eds.), Trends in

E-Tools and Resources for Translators and Interpreters (pp. 203‑218).

Rodopi.

Rodríguez Castro, M. (2018). An integrated curricular design for computer-

assisted translation tools: Developing technical expertise. The

Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 12(4), 355‑374.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2018.1502007

Rodríguez de Céspedes, B. (2020). Beyond the Margins of Academic

Education: Identifying Translation Industry Training Practices through

Action Research. Translation and Interpreting, 12(1), 115‑126.

http://dx.doi.org/10.12807/ti.112201.2020.a07

Sánchez Nieto, M. T., Bachiller Martínez, J. M., Fraile Vicente, E., Carrera

Fernández, J. & Frechoso Remiro, J. C. (2009). Desarrollo conjunto

de competencias mediante la colaboración interdisciplinar. Algunas

experiencias en la licenciatura de Traducción e Interpretación. @tic.

Revista d’innovació educative, 3, 52‑61. http://hdl.handle.net/10550/2

0717

Sánchez-Castany, R. (2022). Teaching translation technologies: an analysis

of a corpus of syllabi for Translation and Interpreting undergraduate

degrees in Spain. In G. Massey, E. Huertas Barros & D. Katan (Eds.),

The Human Translator in the 2020s (pp. 27–43). Routledge.

https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003223344

Sánchez-Castany, R. (2023a). Thematic analysis applied to translation

research: analysis of technological contents in Translation and

Interpreting degrees in Spain. Bellaterra Journal of Teaching &

Learning Language & Literature, 16(3).

https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/jtl3.1139

Sánchez-Castany, R. (2023b). Integrating Technologies in Translation

Teaching: a Study on Trainers’ Perceptions. The Interpreter and

Roser Sanchez-Castany 25

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Translator Trainer, 17(3), 479–502.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2023.2237330

Sánchez-Castany, R. (2024). Industry insights about translation

technologies: current needs and future trends. In Y. Peng, H. Huang &

D. Li (Eds.), New Advances in Translation Technology. Applications

and Pedagogy. Springer Nature (pp. 99–119).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-2958-6_6

Sánchez-Castany, R., Rodríguez Vázquez, S. & Starlander, M. (2022).

Towards a Technologized translation classroom: Practices and

perceptions from trainers at a Swiss university [Paper presentation].

44th Translating and the Computer conference (ASLING),

Luxembourg, Luxembourg.

Sandrini, P. (n.d.). Free Translation Technology. Peter Sandrini. Retrieved

June 6, 2024, from http://www.petersandrini.net/en-fsftrans.html

Schäffner, C. (2020). Translators’ Roles and Responsibilities. In E.

Angelone, M. Ehrensberger-Dow, & G. Massey (Eds.), The

Bloomsbury Companion to Language Industry Studies (pp. 63‑89).

Bloomsbury Academic.

Schmidhofer, A. & Mair, N. (2018). Machine Translation in Translator

Education. CLINA Revista Interdisciplinaria de Traducción

Interpretación y Comunicación Intercultural, 4(2), 163-180.

https://doi.org/10.14201/clina201842163180

Shuttleworth, M. (2017). Cutting Teeth on Translation Technology: How

Students at University College London are Being Trained to Become

Tomorrow’s Translators. Traduçao Em Revista, 22, 18‑38.

https://doi.org/10.17771/PUCRio.TradRev.30595

Sin-wai, C. (2023). Preface to the second edition. In Sin-wai, C. (Ed.), The

Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Technology. (2nd ed., pp. XXXI-

XXXIX) Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003168348

TAUS. (2017). Bridging the Gap Between Business and Academia. A report

on the findings of a survey with the TAUS academic members and

partners 2017. TAUS.

Tiedemann, J. (2011). News from OPUS - A Collection of Multilingual

Parallel Corpora with Tools and Interfaces. In N. Nicolov, K.

Bontcheva, G. Angelova & R. Mitkov (Eds.), Recent Advances in

Natural Language Processing (vol V) (pp. 237-248) John Benjamins.

https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.309.19tie

26 Training Translators in Spain: Key Elements for the Integration […]

Hikma 24(1) (2025), 1 - 27

Torres del Rey, J. (2019). The Proper Place of Localization in Translation

Curricula: An Inclusive Social, Object-Driven, Semiotic-

Communicative Approach. In D. B. Sawyer, F. Austermühl & V.

Enríquez Raído (Eds.), The Evolving Curriculum in Interpreter and

Translator Education. Stakeholder Perspectives and Voices

(pp. 229‑258). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/ata.xix

van der Meer, J. (2020). Translation technology – past, present and future.

In E. Angelone, M. Ehrensberger-Dow & G. Massey (Eds.), The

Bloomsbury Companion to Language Industry Studies (pp. 285‑309).

Bloomsbury Academic.

Vanroy, B., Tezcan, A. & Macken, L. (2023). MATEO: MAchine Translation

Evaluation Online. In M. Nurminen, J. Brenner, M. Koponen, S.

Latomaa, M. Mikhailov, F. Schierl, T. Ranasinghe, E.

Vanmassenhove, S. Alvarez Vidal, N. Aranberri, M. Nunziatini, C.

Parra Escartín, M. Forcada, M. Popovic, C. Scarton, & H. Moniz

(Eds.), Proceedings of the 24th Annual Conference of the European

Association for Machine Translation (pp. 499‑500). Tampere, Finland:

European Association for Machine Translation (EAMT).

Vieira Nunes, L., Zhang, X. & Yu, G. (2021). ‘Click next’: on the merits of

more student autonomy and less direct instruction in CAT teaching.

The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 15(4), 411‑429.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2021.1891515

Zhang, X. & Vieira Nunes, L. (2021). CAT teaching practices: an

international survey. The Journal of Specialised Translation, 36a,

99‑124.