ISSN: 1579-9794

Hikma 25 (1) (2026), 1 - 25

Audiovisual translation practices for language learning in

ESP: Learners’ perceptions of free commentary and

narration

Traducción audiovisual para el aprendizaje de lenguas en

IFE: Las percepciones de aprendices sobre comentario

libre y narración

PEDRO HUMÁNEZ-BERRAL

pedro.humanez@unican.es

Universidad de Cantabria

Date of reception: 03/06/2025

Date of acceptance: 12/01/2026

Abstract: Didactic Audiovisual Translation (DAT) has gained increasing

attention in the field of second language acquisition due to its potential to

facilitate language learning through a range of translation-based

methodologies, including subtitling, dubbing, or audio description. Among

these, didactic revoicing is particularly notable for its ability to engage learners

in the simultaneous development of multiple oral and written linguistic skills.

However, the specific role of free commentary and narration within didactic

revoicing remains underexplored. To address this gap, the present study

examines English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners’ perceptions of the

effectiveness of didactic narration and free commentary in fostering both

productive language skills and non-linguistic competencies. A quantitative

research design was adopted, employing a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire

to assess perceived potential improvement in productive linguistic skills

through seven items and non-linguistic competencies through four items. Data

were analysed using descriptive statistics and inferential non-parametric tests.

Regarding linguistic skills, findings indicate that while grammar and writing

skills received comparatively moderate ratings in terms of perceived potential

development, other skills–such as fluency, pronunciation, and vocabulary–

were highly rated and perceived as having significant potential for

improvement. For non-linguistic competencies such as self-assessment,

content knowledge, engagement, and creativity, learners reported perceived

gains across all measured areas. These results underscore the pedagogical

value of didactic revoicing not only in enhancing productive language skills but

also in fostering non-linguistic competencies. The findings suggest that

reinforcing grammar and writing instruction within didactic revoicing could

enhance its overall effectiveness. Future research should explore targeted

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strategies for integrating explicit grammar and writing support within DAT-

based activities.

Keywords: Didactic Audiovisual Translation (DAT), Didactic revoicing, Free

commentary, Narration, ESP

Resumen: La Traducción Audiovisual Didáctica (TAD) ha recibido una

atención creciente en el campo de la adquisición de lenguas extranjeras

debido a su potencial para mejorar el aprendizaje de lenguas a través de

diversas modalidades de traducción, como la subtitulación, el doblaje o la

audiodescripción. Entre estas, el revoicing didáctico destaca por su capacidad

para desarrollar simultáneamente múltiples destrezas orales y escritas. No

obstante, el papel específico de la narración y el comentario libre dentro del

revoicing didáctico sigue estando poco explorado. Por ello, este estudio

analiza las percepciones de aprendices de inglés para fines específicos (IFE)

sobre la efectividad de la narración didáctica y el comentario libre en la mejora

de destrezas lingüísticas y no lingüísticas. Se optó por un diseño de

investigación cuantitativo basado en el uso de un cuestionario con escala

Likert de 5 puntos para evaluar las destrezas lingüísticas (siete ítems) y no

lingüísticas (cuatro ítems). Los datos se analizaron mediante estadística

descriptiva y tests no paramétricos. Los resultados sobre destrezas

lingüísticas indican que, si bien la gramática y la escritura recibieron

valoraciones moderadas, otras habilidades –como la fluidez, la pronunciación

y el vocabulario –se evaluaron como áreas con un alto potencial de mejora.

En cuanto a las destrezas no lingüísticas como la autoevaluación, el

conocimiento temático, la implicación en el aprendizaje o la creatividad, los y

las participantes percibieron avances en todas las áreas evaluadas. Estos

hallazgos subrayan el valor pedagógico del revoicing didáctico, no solo en el

desarrollo de destrezas lingüísticas, sino también en el fortalecimiento de

destrezas no lingüísticas. Los resultados sugieren que se debe reforzar el

papel de la gramática y la escritura dentro del revoicing didáctico. En estudios

futuros, se debería explorar la integración de estrategias específicas para

potenciar estas destrezas en actividades basadas en la TAD.

Palabras clave: Traducción audiovisual didáctica (TAD), Revoicing didáctico,

Comentario libre, Narración, IFE

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INTRODUCTION

The use of translation in foreign language (FL) learning has a

long-standing tradition, largely due to its reliance on learners’ first language

(L1) as a foundation for acquiring a second language (L2). However,

translation has historically been associated with the Grammar-Translation

Method (Incalcaterra-McLoughlin and Lertola, 2014), an approach that

emphasises the memorisation of vocabulary and grammatical rules for the

purpose of translating texts between L1 and L2 (Benati, 2018). This method

has been widely criticised and largely abandoned since the 20th century, as it

has been argued that it fails to foster communicative and oral skills in the

target language (Cook, 2010).

In recent years, however, translation has undergone a notable

transformation as a pedagogical tool in FL education, driven by evolving

methodological approaches, pedagogical advancements, and technological

innovations. Accordingly, translation may now be integrated into more

communicative approaches (Talaván et al., 2023), challenging the criticisms

it previously faced. One of the most significant developments in this regard is

Didactic Audiovisual Translation (DAT), which integrates audiovisual

translation (AVT) techniques into language learning to enhance linguistic

competence (Lertola, 2019a; Talaván, 2020). This represents a shift from

previous approaches that used AVT as a form of support in language learning

(Talaván, 2010) in which learners were positioned in a more passive role as

recipients of audiovisual input (Holobow et al., 1984; Vanderplank, 1988).

However, DAT encompasses a range of translation practices that may vary in

their nature and pedagogical application (Plaza-Lara et al., 2025; Talaván,

2020). Consequently, further research is needed to examine different DAT

modalities and their potential impact on both linguistic and non-linguistic

competencies in FL learning.

While certain DAT modalities, such as didactic subtitling and dubbing,

have received considerable scholarly attention, other modalities–particularly

free commentary and narration revoicing activities–remain largely unexplored

by both researchers and practitioners, despite their potential for language

learning (Baeyens-Morata, 2023; Botella et al., 2025). This gap in the literature

suggests a lack of understanding regarding how learners engage with and

respond to free commentary and narration tasks. As a result, the limited

awareness and empirical evidence surrounding these modalities may

discourage language instructors from integrating them into their teaching

practice. To address this research gap, the present study offers new empirical

insights by exploring ESP learners’ perspectives on the potential benefits of

free commentary and narration revoicing activities in developing both linguistic

skills and non-linguistic competencies. By contributing to the limited body of

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research on this DAT modality, this study aims to raise awareness among

language practitioners about its potential pedagogical value and encourage

its incorporation into FL instruction.

To achieve this objective, the article first provides a theoretical overview

of DAT as a pedagogical approach in FL learning, with a particular focus on

didactic revoicing and its application in previous studies. The research

questions guiding this study are then outlined, followed by the methodology

section, which includes aspects such as the ESP learning context, didactic

implementation, participant characteristics, data collection instruments, and

analytical procedures. The findings are subsequently presented and

discussed, leading to the study’s conclusions, which highlight its limitations

and propose directions for future research.

1. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1.1. Didactic Audiovisual Translation

DAT can be understood as the application of AVT techniques in FL

learning, wherein “learners are involved in the audiovisual translation process

itself, performing tasks such as subtitling, dubbing, or audio describing”

(Incalcaterra-McLoughlin et al., 2020, p. 2). This approach entails that

language learners work on an audiovisual product using techniques similar to

those employed by professional audiovisual translators, albeit with a primary

focus on L2 learning (Tinedo-Rodríguez, 2023b).

DAT has the potential to enhance both oral and written skills–

irrespective of the modality being employed (Talaván, 2020)–due to the

inherent interplay between oral and written features in audiovisual texts

(Alessandro and Zamora-Muñoz, 2024). Studies assessing the potential

benefits of DAT in language learning have reported positive outcomes in

various linguistic domains, including listening comprehension (Talaván and

Rodríguez-Arancón, 2014), writing (Talaván and Ávila-Cabrera, 2021),

vocabulary (Lertola, 2019b), speaking (Danan, 2010), pronunciation (Chiu,

2012), fluency (Sánchez-Requena, 2016) or reading skills (Ávila-Cabrera,

2021; Talaván and Rodríguez-Arancón, 2024). Furthermore, DAT activities

have been investigated as a dual-purpose pedagogical tool, fostering both

linguistic development and translation competence among Translation and

Interpreting trainees (Clouet, 2024; Plaza-Lara and Fernández-Costales,

2022; Veroz-González, 2024).

Given the observed improvements in specific linguistic areas through

DAT, scholars have expanded their research focus to examine its

non-linguistic outcomes as well. Engagement and motivation have been found

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to increase through DAT (Talaván, 2013), potentially due to factors such as

the engaging nature of audiovisual texts or the integration of technology. In

addition to enhancing engagement and motivation, DAT has been shown to

improve ICT competencies (Tinedo-Rodríguez, 2023b) owing to the

continuous use of specialised software and online platforms. Moreover, the

content of audiovisual texts has led researchers to identify DAT as a means

of raising gender awareness (Tinedo-Rodríguez, 2024; Zaragoza-Ninet and

Ricart-Vayá, 2020) or intercultural awareness (Incalcaterra-McLoughlin et al.,

2020; Sanz-Moreno, 2023). This was further corroborated by

Rodríguez-Arancón (2023), who found that learners demonstrated enhanced

cultural awareness in both their L1 and L2. Additionally, that study revealed

that learners perceived an improvement in their critical thinking skills as a

result of engaging in various DAT tasks, a perspective also shared by

language instructors who have implemented DAT in their teaching practices

(Incalcaterra-McLoughlin et al., 2020). Furthermore, DAT has been used as a

tool to foster creativity among learners (Ogea-Pozo and Ruiz-Espejel, 2024),

with some scholars proposing didactic strategies for language instructors to

integrate into their pedagogical approaches (Tinedo-Rodríguez, 2023a).

The linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes associated with DAT may

vary depending on the AVT modality employed (Talaván, 2020), as different

modalities possess distinct characteristics (Chaume Varela, 2004).

Alonso-Pérez and Sánchez-Requena (2018) classify AVT modalities used in

DAT into two primary categories: 1) subtitling and 2) revoicing. The subtitling

modalities include intertitling, standard subtitling, surtitling, subtitling for the

deaf and hard of hearing, respeaking-based subtitling, fansubbing, and 3D

subtitling. The revoicing modalities, as identified by the authors, encompass

dubbing, voice-over, free commentary, narration, audio description,

simultaneous and consecutive interpreting, as well as other forms such as

karaoke, audio-subtitling, and fandubbing (Alonso-Pérez and

Sánchez-Requena, 2018). In subtitling modalities, learners generate subtitles,

whereas in revoicing modalities, they produce audio tracks (Talaván, 2020).

Consequently, the final product in DAT tasks is either written (subtitles) or

spoken (revoicing). However, DAT tasks can be designed to incorporate both

written and oral skills, irrespective of the chosen modality. Given that this

study focuses on free commentary and narration, the outcomes associated

with revoicing modalities will be examined.

1.2. Didactic revoicing

Didactic revoicing is defined as the “recording of a new audio track for

a particular video on the part of the [FL] students” (Talaván, 2020, p. 573). As

outlined in the previous subsection, didactic revoicing encompasses various

modalities, with dubbing being the most widely used activity.

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Studies investigating dubbing as a revoicing practice for language

learning have demonstrated its positive impact on speaking skills (Danan,

2010; Huang, 2022; Talaván and Costal, 2017), pronunciation (Chiu, 2012;

He and Wasuntarasophit, 2015; Sánchez-Requena, 2016, 2020)–including

stress placement (Luo et al., 2016)–, fluency (He and Wasuntarasophit, 2015;

Sánchez-Requena, 2016, 2020), writing (Danan, 2010) and overall linguistic

proficiency (Sánchez-Requena, 2016, 2020; Zhang, 2016). Research on other

revoicing activities, such as audio description, has examined lexical accuracy

(Calduch and Talaván, 2017) and general linguistic proficiency (Talaván and

Lertola, 2016). Additionally, studies on voice-over have explored

pronunciation and intonation (Talaván and Rodríguez-Arancón, 2018).

However, free commentary and narration remain underexplored, with Lertola

(2021) representing a notable exception.

Free commentary is an AVT modality more closely associated with

adaptation than translation (Chaume Varela, 2004). It involves a non-literal

rendition of the text, incorporating additions and omissions, as fidelity to the

original audiovisual content is not the primary objective (Chaume Varela,

2004). Conversely, narration, which is not typically regarded as a significant

AVT practice in professional contexts (Chaume Varela, 2004), is a revoicing

activity wherein the original content is described and summarised to align with

the visual input (Pérez-González, 2019). When FL learners engage in these

revoicing practices, they may approach them either as a creative exercise

(free commentary) or as an intersemiotic translation task, in which learners

interpret visual elements from the video into their L2 rather than relying on a

pre-existing script (Talaván et al., 2023).

The study on free commentary by Lertola (2021) found that pre-service

teachers perceived significant improvements in their writing and speaking

skills, alongside a moderate enhancement of their grammatical knowledge.

Furthermore, participants reported finding the activity engaging and applicable

to their future teaching practices. However, the overall scarcity of empirical

studies investigating the potential benefits of free commentary and the limited

attention given to other revoicing activities, such as narration, underscore the

need for further research to evaluate their linguistic and non-linguistic

outcomes.

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2. THE PRESENT STUDY

Given the potential effectiveness of various didactic revoicing

modalities in enhancing linguistic and non-linguistic skills and the scarcity of

research on free commentary and narration as DAT modalities, this study

aims to contribute to the existing literature by exploring ESP learners’ insights

into potential linguistic and non-linguistic skills development through the use

of those DAT modalities. Therefore, this study aims to answer the following

research questions (RQs):

• RQ 1: To what extent do ESP learners anticipate improvement in

different productive linguistic skills through didactic revoicing

practices?

• RQ 2: Which productive linguistic skills do ESP learners consider

to be more, average, or less likely to improve through didactic

revoicing practices?

• RQ 3: To what extent do ESP learners anticipate improvement in

different non-linguistic skills through didactic revoicing practices?

• RQ 4: Which non-linguistic skills do ESP learners consider to be

more, average, or less likely to improve through didactic revoicing

practices?

This section delineates the methodology employed to address the

study’s RQs. It first describes the ESP teaching and learning context of the

study. Then, a subsection is devoted to explaining the didactic implementation

designed to engage learners in the narration and free commentary tasks, as

well as to elicit their responses to the questionnaire used. Subsequently, the

characteristics of the study participants are outlined. This is followed by a

detailed account of the instruments and procedures used for data collection.

Finally, the statistical analyses applied in the study are presented.

2.1. Teaching and learning context of the study

This study was conducted within an ESP setting, making it essential to

examine the characteristics of ESP in relation to the participants’ learning

context. ESP, which–as previously mentioned–stands for English for Specific

Purposes, is an approach to language teaching that focuses on addressing

learners’ current or future academic and professional needs (Anthony, 2018).

ESP is closely tied to specific disciplines (Dudley-Evans and St John, 1998),

meaning that ESP for Engineering may differ significantly from ESP in fields

such as Health Sciences, as it tends to be tailored to the distinct linguistic and

communicative demands of each domain.

Studies exploring DAT in ESP contexts have examined disciplines such

as Engineering (Gonzalez-Vera, 2021), Commerce (Ávila-Cabrera, 2021),

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Speech Therapy (Fernández-Costales et al., 2022), Translation and

Interpreting (Clouet, 2024; Plaza-Lara and Fernández-Costales, 2022;

Veroz-González, 2024), or Teacher Training (Lertola, 2021). However, each

study adopts a distinct approach and modality, adapting DAT to the specific

needs of the sample under investigation. In this study, the ESP discipline is

Engineering, which influences key instructional aspects such as specialised

terminology and the learners’ specific objectives. The development of

pedagogical tasks in ESP requires a needs analysis, a process that involves

collecting relevant information to design a curriculum aligned with learners’

requirements (Brown, 2016). This analysis takes into account their existing

linguistic competencies and their ability to function in specific communicative

contexts (Woodrow, 2017). The participants in this study identified several key

needs at the beginning of the course, including enhancing their employability,

improving communication skills for English-Medium Instruction (EMI) courses,

preparing for potential international exchanges, and acquiring proficiency in

General English.

To address these needs, the didactic revoicing task developed for this

study was designed to simulate a real-world professional scenario. The task

incorporated content relevant to future courses in the participants’ Engineering

curriculum and provided exposure to both academic discourse and basic

interpersonal communication. By integrating discipline-specific language and

authentic communicative contexts, the task aimed to support learners in

achieving their academic and professional objectives.

2.2. Didactic implementation

The didactic implementation of the revoicing activity adhered to the

guidelines proposed by Talaván (2020) for DAT didactic units, with a particular

focus on the recommendations outlined in Talaván et al. (2024) for free

commentary revoicing tasks. The didactic process followed the sequential

steps detailed in Table 1.

Description

Objective

Pre-viewing Activities

(F2F: 10 minutes)

(online: 1 day)

Introducing the video, the

new linguistic content

and presenting brief free

commentary and

narration sample

To gather background

knowledge and to make

learners familiar with free

commentary and

narration

Video viewing (F2F: 10

minutes) (online: 1 day)

The video is watched at

least twice, paying

attention to the

To understand the visual

information

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information contained in

the images

Revoicing practice

(F2F: 30 minutes)

(online: 2 days)

Students create the script

for the video on their own

To develop writing and

speaking production

skills

Post-revoicing

activities (F2F: 10–15

minutes) (online: 1 day)

Watching the results of

various classmates and

discussing differences

and possible

improvements

To reflect upon one’s

work and peer-

assessment

Table 1. Revoicing sequence

Source. Adapted from Talaván (2020)

While the guidelines outlined in Table 1 were originally intended for an

audio description revoicing task, the same steps were applied for the

implementation of the free commentary and narration revoicing activity in this

study. However, notable differences were observed in the allocation of time

for each phase within the actual task sequence used. Although face-to-face

revoicing activities typically span a single one-hour session,

Bolaños-García-Escribano and Navarrete (2022) showed that an ample

amount of time should be incorporated into the didactic revoicing lesson plan

to allow students to effectively complete the task during class time.

Consequently, in this study, the total time dedicated to the revoicing activity

extended to four hours over the course of one week.

The pre-viewing activity aimed to anticipate the linguistic demands of

the revoicing task while introducing the techniques of free commentary and

narration. The selected video for the revoicing activity depicted technicians

replacing the blade of a wind turbine. Accordingly, the vocabulary and

terminology covered in the pre-viewing phase encompassed both general

lexicon and specialised terms related to wind energy and wind turbine

components. Given the descriptive nature of the narration and the creative

dimension of the free commentary, no explicit focus was placed on

anticipating specific grammatical structures at this stage. In this session,

learners were introduced to the characteristics of free commentary and

narration, allowing them to choose their preferred approach for the revoicing

activity. Additionally, the instructions and assessment rubric for the activity

were presented during the initial session. The rubric, based on the guidelines

provided by Talaván et al. (2024), served a dual purpose. First, it provided

learners with a clear understanding of the expectations for the task. Second,

it functioned as a tool for delivering structured feedback on their performance.

These guidelines, outlined in Table 2, ensured both transparency in

assessment and constructive evaluation of student output.

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Dimension

Indicator

Lexical accuracy and richness

You need to be accurate in your descriptions

and look for the most precise words that can

reflect the corresponding images. You can omit

some information that you think is not relevant

for your script

Grammatical precision and

reduction

You need to express actions and describe

situations using the most precise structures;

avoid unnecessary information, being

redundant and anticipating content.

Creativity

Try to be creative with your writing. You need to

understand the original text and images

Fluency and speech rate

Try to focus on using correct pronunciation and

intonation. Your speech needs to be fluent and

fast enough to accompany the images

Synchrony

The narration script must appear synchronised

with the corresponding images

Table 2. Sample guidelines for didactic free commentary

Source. Adapted from Talaván et al. (2024)

Following this, the video was presented and analysed to ensure that all

learners understood the visual content and the various approaches available

for creating their own texts. The video viewing stage comprised several short

comprehension and productive activities designed to activate prior knowledge

and stimulate idea generation. Additionally, the method for integrating their

own audio track with the original audio was introduced. Given that most

participants reported being more used to using their mobile phones for photo

and video editing than their laptops, the mobile application “InShot” was

recommended and presented. All participants in this study reported using this

app due to its compatibility with different mobile operating systems.

During the third session dedicated to this unit, learners engaged in

writing their texts, recording their audio tracks, and integrating them into the

video. They composed their texts manually on paper, without the assistance

of dictionaries or online resources. However, guidance was provided by the

instructor upon request, primarily addressing inquiries related to general

vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. Once they had integrated their audio

tracks into the video, learners uploaded their final projects to the course’s

online platform. They also handed in their written scripts, although these were

not included in their formal grading.

The fourth and final session was devoted to the presentation and

discussion of the completed videos. Learners who volunteered to share their

work facilitated a reflective discussion in which participants provided their

peers with feedback on various aspects, including their overall impressions,

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approaches to the task, thematic relevance, notable elements, and potential

areas for improvement. Following the viewing and discussion of all

volunteer-submitted videos, participants completed the questionnaire

designed for this study.

2.3. Participants

The study was conducted with a sample of 33 ESP learners enrolled at

a university in Northern Spain. Participants were undertaking an English

course for engineering that integrated both General English and technical

English. This course, offered during the first semester of their four-year

undergraduate programs, carried a total of 6 ECTS credits (150 hours),

comprising 60 hours of face-to-face instruction and 90 hours of independent

study. The course may be validated through an administrative process

whereby learners possessing a CEFR B2 or higher certificate are awarded a

fixed grade of 9, without the need to take the course. This constraint limits the

sample size of this study, as the majority of potential enrollees had already

obtained an English certificate to validate the course. The sample was drawn

from two undergraduate degree programs: Electrical Engineering (n = 20) and

Industrial Electronic Engineering and Automatic Control Systems (n = 13).

While both genders were represented, the distribution was highly skewed, with

30 participants identifying as male and 3 as female. The mean age of the

sample was 18.7 years.

No prior exposure to English, whether formal, non-formal, or informal,

was controlled for in this study. However, at the start of the study, participants’

formal exposure to English consisted of four face-to-face hours per week,

structured into two two-hour sessions. Self-reported proficiency levels, as

indicated in the questionnaire and based on the Common European

Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL), were B1 (n = 27) and B2

(n = 6). Spanish was the participants’ L1, while English was their L2. A

summary of participant characteristics is presented in Table 3.

Total participants

Current formal

exposure in English

6 ECTS

60 face-to-face

hours

Degree

Electrical Engineering

Industrial Electronic Engineering

and Automatic Control

Gender

Male

Female

Age

Mean (SD)

18.7 (.99)

Self-reported CEFRL

level of English

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Spanish

English

Table 3. Participants’ characteristics

Source. Elaborated by the author

3. INSTRUMENTS AND DATA GATHERING

As mentioned in the Didactic implementation section, participants were

required to complete an online questionnaire comprising multiple sections

during the final session, following the completion of the revoicing activity and

the viewing of videos presented by learners who volunteered. The first section

of the questionnaire sought participants’ informed consent to take part in the

study and to allow their responses to be used for research purposes.

Participation was entirely voluntary, responses were anonymised, and no

incentives were provided. All learners who engaged in the revoicing activity

consented to participate in the research phase. Subsequently, participants

were asked to provide background information, including age, gender, L1(s),

undergraduate degree, and self-reported proficiency level in English

according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

(CEFR). The data collected from this section are presented in the Participants

section and summarised in Table 3.

Following the completion of the background section, participants

proceeded to the third part of the questionnaire, which required participants to

evaluate statements related to the perceived development of various

productive linguistic skills and non-linguistic competencies through free

commentary and narration activities. Participants rated the items of the

questionnaire on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)

to 5 (strongly agree). The linguistic skills assessed included fluency,

pronunciation, general vocabulary, overall speaking ability, terminology,

general writing ability, and grammar. An example statement was: “I believe

that the revoicing activity helps improve my pronunciation skills”. The

non-linguistic competencies assessed included self-assessment, subject

knowledge, engagement, and creativity, with an example statement being: “I

believe that the revoicing activity helps improve my self-assessment

competence”.

4. DATA ANALYSES

The data presented in this study underwent a multi-stage analytical

process to ensure comprehensive examination. First, to address RQ 1 and

RQ 3, which investigated the extent to which ESP learners anticipated

improvements in productive linguistic skills and non-linguistic competencies

through free commentary and narration revoicing tasks, descriptive statistics

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were computed. This included calculating mean scores (on a 1 to 5 scale) for

each item, along with standard deviations (SD), minimum and maximum

values, across the entire sample. Subsequently, Shapiro–Wilk tests were

conducted to assess the normality of data distribution for each item. The

results indicated that the sample did not follow a normal distribution, as

determined by p-values (p < .05) and corroborated by histogram analyses.

Given the non-normal distribution, non-parametric statistical tests were

employed: Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA and Wilcoxon tests were used to compare

the scores obtained across different questionnaire items.

To address RQ 2 and RQ 4, which aimed to identify the specific

productive linguistic skills and non-linguistic competencies that learners

expected to improve at varying levels due to the didactic revoicing activity, two

composite variables were created. One variable represented the average

score of items related to productive linguistic skills, while the other

represented the average score of items addressing non-linguistic

competencies. To examine potential differences among individual items within

these two categories, a non-parametric Friedman ANOVA test for repeated

measures was conducted separately for productive linguistic skills and

non-linguistic competencies. The analysis revealed significant differences

among productive linguistic skills; however, no statistically significant

differences were observed for non-linguistic competencies. To further

investigate these differences (or the absence of differences in the case of

non-linguistic competencies), a Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples

was conducted.

For productive linguistic skills, three distinct groups were established

based on learners’ perceptions: 1) skills that improved the most due to didactic

revoicing, 2) skills that improved to an average degree, and 3) skills that

improved significantly less than others. These classifications are visually

represented in Table 5 using colour coding for clarity. Skills shaded in grey

indicate a statistically significant difference when compared to the overall

productive linguistic competence variable, while those without a shaded

background (white) do not show significant differences. The statistical

significance of these differences is further indicated by p-values: skills with

p ≤ .05 exhibit significant differences from the overall mean, while those with

p > .05 fall within the average group. This classification applies exclusively to

the analysis of productive linguistic skills. In contrast, the analysis of

non- linguistic competencies did not yield significant differences among items;

therefore, no items in Table 7 are highlighted with a grey background.

14 Audiovisual translation practices for language learning in ESP

Hikma 25 (1) (2026), 1 - 25

5. RESULTS

This section presents the results of the data analyses, aiming to provide

answers to the established RQs. To ensure clarity, the findings are structured

in accordance with the specific research questions they address.

RQ1 investigates the extent to which ESP learners perceive didactic

revoicing activities–such as the one they participated in–as beneficial for

enhancing various productive linguistic skills. The results of this analysis are

summarised in Table 4. For each linguistic skill, the table reports the number

of valid responses, mean, median, SD, minimum and maximum values, as

well as the Shapiro–Wilk W statistic and its corresponding p-value. The

linguistic skills are ranked in descending order based on their mean scores,

with fluency receiving the highest average rating and grammar the lowest.

MEAN

MEDIAN

MIN

MAX

SHAPIRO–

WILK W

SHAPIRO–

WILK P

FLUENCY

4.58

0.56

0.68

< .001

PRONUNCIATION

4.55

0.56

0.69

< .001

VOCABULARY

4.45

0.56

0.71

< .001

SPEAKING

4.38

0.65

0.75

< .001

TERMINOLOGY

4.16

0.78

0.79

< .001

WRITING

3.97

0.93

0.83

< .001

GRAMMAR

3.88

0.89

0.79

< .001

Table 4. Descriptive statistics of productive linguistic skills

Source. Elaborated by the author

The findings indicate that nearly all linguistic skills received high ratings



> 4), with the exception of writing and grammar, which obtained mean

scores slightly below 4. This suggests that participants generally anticipate

improvements in all assessed linguistic skills following engagement with the

didactic revoicing activity, albeit with slightly lower expectations for writing and

grammar. Furthermore, the SDs for the three highest-rated skills–fluency,

pronunciation, and vocabulary–are relatively low (SD = 0.56), suggesting

greater consensus among participants in their evaluations of these skills. In

contrast, skills that were perceived as less likely to improve exhibited higher

SDs, indicating greater variability in responses. Regarding the range of

scores, the minimum values indicate that, apart from writing (which received

a minimum score of 1), all linguistic skills were rated at least 3 by all

participants. Conversely, the maximum values show that all skills received at

least one rating of 5. The Shapiro–Wilk test was employed to assess the

normality of the data distribution. W values are not close enough to 1 and the

significance levels indicate that the data are not normally distributed for any

of the assessed linguistic skills (p < .001). This observation was further

Pedro Humánez-Berral 15

Hikma 25 (1) (2026), 1 - 25

corroborated through distribution histograms. Consequently, non-parametric

tests were employed in subsequent statistical analyses to compare these

linguistic skills.

RQ2 investigates which productive linguistic skills ESP learners

perceive to be significantly more, averagely or less likely to improve when they

engage in didactic revoicing tasks such as free commentary and narration. To

assess potential differences in these perceptions, a preliminary

non-parametric Friedman test for repeated measures was conducted to

compare the scores obtained for each linguistic skill. This test revealed a

chi-square (χ²) value of 47.6, which was statistically significant (p < .001) with

7 degrees of freedom (df). This indicates significant differences between the

assessed skills, suggesting that ESP learners perceive some productive

linguistic skills as more likely to improve than others. Consequently, additional

statistical tests were performed to further explore these differences.

Table 5 presents the results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired

samples. Linguistic skills are arranged in descending order, from the highest

to the lowest mean scores. Three distinct groups emerge from the analysis

based on the mean scores and the significance level of comparisons between

individual skill scores and the overall mean score (representing linguistic

competence). These groups are: 1) skills expected to improve the most

(fluency, pronunciation, and vocabulary), 2) skills expected to improve

moderately (speaking and terminology), and 3) skills expected to improve the

least (writing and grammar). The significance levels (p-values) are indicated

by asterisks (*), where the absence of an asterisk indicates p > .05, “*” denotes

p < .05, “**” denotes p < .010, and “***” denotes p < .001.

MEAN

FLUENCY

4.58

0.56

57.5

0.003**

PRONUNCIATION

4.55

0.56

0.004**

VOCABULARY

4.45

0.56

0.007**

SPEAKING

4.38

0.65

146.5

0.312

PRODUCTIVE

LINGUISTIC

COMPETENCE

4.30

0.52

–

TERMINOLOGY

4.16

0.78

233.5

0.144

WRITING

3.97

0.93

253.5

0.015*

GRAMMAR

3.88

0.89

297

< .001***

Table 5. Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples of productive linguistic

skills

Source. Elaborated by the author

The results section now shifts focus to non-linguistic competencies.

RQ3 examined the extent to which ESP learners expected their non-linguistic

16 Audiovisual translation practices for language learning in ESP

Hikma 25 (1) (2026), 1 - 25

competencies to improve through engagement in free commentary and

narration revoicing activities. Table 6 displays the descriptive statistics for the

scores related to learners’ expectations of improvement in non-linguistic

competencies following participation in the didactic revoicing activity within an

ESP context.

MEAN

MEDIAN

MIN

MAX

SHAPIRO–

WILK W

SHAPIRO–

WILK P

SELF-

ASSESSMENT

4.41

0.70

0.74

< .001

CONTENT

KNOWLEDGE

4.29

0.62

0.77

< .001

ENGAGEMENT

4.27

0.62

0.77

< .001

CREATIVITY

4.18

0.72

0.80

< .001

Table 6. Descriptive statistics of non-linguistic competencies

Source. Elaborated by the author

Similar to the descriptive statistics for linguistic skills, the non-linguistic

skills are arranged in descending order of mean scores, from the highest

(self-assessment) to the lowest (creativity). The results indicate that all

non-linguistic competencies received high mean scores (x



> 4), suggesting

that students perceive didactic revoicing activities as highly effective in

enhancing their non-linguistic competencies, such as self-assessment,

content knowledge, engagement, and creativity. Among these, content

knowledge and engagement exhibited the lowest SD (0.62), indicating

relatively less variability in participants’ responses. In contrast, creativity

(SD = 0.72) and self-assessment (SD = 0.70) demonstrated higher SDs,

reflecting slightly greater variability in the participants’ expectations. However,

it is important to note that the SDs across all four non-linguistic competencies

should not be interpreted as particularly high. All these values fall between the

highest (0.93) and lowest (0.56) SDs observed for the linguistic skills. This

suggests that while responses were more consistent for certain productive

linguistic skills (such as fluency, pronunciation, and vocabulary), the variability

in non-linguistic competencies was not as pronounced as it was for others,

such as writing skills.

The range of scores indicates variability, with responses spanning from

a minimum of 3 to a maximum of 5 across all four non-linguistic competencies.

This range of variability is consistent with the values observed for linguistic

skills, with the exception of writing and grammar, where the minimum scores

fell below 3. The Shapiro–Wilk test indicated that the data for all non-linguistic

competencies were not normally distributed (p < .001), with W values not

sufficiently close to 1 to suggest normality. This finding was further supported

Pedro Humánez-Berral 17

Hikma 25 (1) (2026), 1 - 25

by histograms, which also demonstrated the non-normal distribution of the

data.

RQ4 sought to examine whether ESP learners perceive certain

non-linguistic competencies as significantly more, moderately, or less likely to

improve after engaging in free commentary and narration revoicing activities.

To explore this, a preliminary non-parametric Friedman test for repeated

measures was conducted to compare the scores obtained for each

non-linguistic skill and assess the presence of significant differences. The test

yielded a χ² value of 5.14 (df = 4), which was not statistically significant

(p = 0.27). These results suggest that ESP learners perceived all analysed

non-linguistic competencies as comparable in terms of improvement following

didactic revoicing tasks. This absence of significant differences was further

confirmed by a Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples, the results of

which are presented in Table 7.

MEAN

SELF-

ASSESSMENT

4.41

0.70

109

0.14

NON-

LINGUISTIC

COMPETENCE

4.29

0.50

–

CONTENT

KNOWLEDGE

4.29

0.62

134

0.91

ENGAGEMENT

4.27

0.62

123

0.81

CREATIVITY

4.18

0.72

200

0.15

Table 7. Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples of non-linguistic

competencies

Source. Elaborated by the author

As anticipated by the ANOVA test, no significant differences emerged

when comparing individual non-linguistic competencies to the aggregate

variable representing the mean scores of all competencies (non-linguistic

competence). This suggests that, although participants assigned different

values to each non-linguistic competency, they generally perceive them as

improving in a similar manner after engaging in free commentary and narration

revoicing activities.

6. DISCUSSION

The objective of this study was to examine ESP learners’ perceptions

of free commentary and narration as revoicing tasks to foster productive

linguistic skills and non-linguistic competencies. To achieve this, the research

was structured around four RQs: two addressing linguistic skills and two

addressing non-linguistic competencies. This section addresses these RQs

18 Audiovisual translation practices for language learning in ESP

Hikma 25 (1) (2026), 1 - 25

by analysing the results obtained and situating them within the existing

literature on AVT practices in language learning.

RQ1 and RQ2 explored the potential improvement in linguistic skills.

The participants of this study perceived fluency, pronunciation, vocabulary,

speaking, and terminology as the most likely to improve, with mean scores

exceeding 4. In particular, fluency, pronunciation, and vocabulary were

expected to improve significantly more than the other skills. These findings

align with previous research on didactic revoicing practices such as dubbing

and voice-over. Studies on dubbing have reported positive effects on fluency

and pronunciation (Chiu, 2012; He and Wasuntarasophit, 2015;

Sánchez-Requena, 2016, 2020), while research on voice-over has highlighted

improvements in pronunciation (Talaván and Rodríguez-Arancón, 2018), and

audio description has been linked to enhanced lexical accuracy (Talaván and

Lertola, 2016). These findings suggest that free commentary and narration

activities align with other revoicing techniques in achieving positive linguistic

outcomes.

Conversely, the linguistic skills that received the lowest scores were

writing and grammar, with mean scores slightly below 4. Statistical analyses

indicated that ESP learners perceived these skills as significantly less likely to

improve through free commentary and narration activities. The finding

regarding grammar knowledge is consistent with the study on free

commentary by Lertola (2021), in which learners anticipated improvement but

to a lesser extent. However, the author also found that writing skills were

expected to improve significantly more than speaking skills, which contrasts

with the present study. This discrepancy could be attributed to differences in

task sequencing or the value learners place on different DAT stages. Prior

research suggests that learners favour AVT activities emphasizing oral rather

than written skills (Talaván and Ávila-Cabrera, 2015).

These results indicate that free commentary and narration are effective

activities for developing productive linguistic skills. Therefore, more educators

and researchers should consider integrating these AVT modalities into

language teaching and research. However, additional focus on writing and

grammar should be incorporated to further support their development.

Furthermore, a broader selection of didactic materials related to free

commentary and narration should be made available for educators, learners,

and researchers.

RQ3 and RQ4 examined the potential enhancement of non-linguistic

competencies. Learners reported strong expectations for improvements in

self-assessment, content knowledge, engagement, and creativity, with mean

scores exceeding 4. No significant differences emerged in the statistical

Pedro Humánez-Berral 19

Hikma 25 (1) (2026), 1 - 25

analyses, indicating that these competencies were similarly expected to

improve. These findings support prior research suggesting that DAT fosters

engagement (Talaván, 2013; Talaván and Ávila-Cabrera, 2015) and creativity

(Ogea-Pozo and Ruiz-Espejel, 2024). Additional studies focusing on

content-related aspects, such as intercultural awareness (Rodríguez-

Arancón, 2023) and gender awareness (Tinedo-Rodríguez, 2024; Zaragoza-

Ninet and Ricart-Vayá, 2020), further suggest that DAT can enhance learners’

content knowledge and awareness. The present study corroborates these

findings, as participants perceived free commentary and narration as

beneficial for deepening their understanding of audiovisual texts–a particularly

advantageous outcome for ESP learners. The high scores for self-assessment

indicate that these tasks may promote autonomous learning, allowing

students to develop independent learning strategies.

These findings suggest that free commentary and narration contribute

to the development of non-linguistic competencies, making them highly

valuable for language teaching and learning in ESP contexts. Nevertheless,

further implementation and exploration of these DAT modalities are necessary

across various domains, including General English, translation training,

teacher training, and English for Social and Cooperation Purposes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study investigated Engineering ESP learners’ perceptions of the

potential impact of didactic revoicing activities, such as free commentary and

narration, on productive linguistic skills and non-linguistic competencies. The

findings reveal that ESP learners perceive skills such as fluency,

pronunciation, vocabulary, speaking, and terminology as highly likely to

improve, with mean scores exceeding 4 on a 1-5 scale. Notably, fluency,

pronunciation, and vocabulary are expected to improve significantly more due

to free commentary and narration activities. In contrast, writing and grammar

are rated as significantly less likely to improve, yet their scores remain

relatively high, still approaching a score of 4 out of 5. Therefore, free

commentary and narration appear to be appropriate tasks for enhancing

learners’ productive linguistic skills. However, a greater emphasis on writing

and grammar is needed to create more comprehensive tasks that can

enhance a broader range of linguistic areas.

The outcomes of this study also indicate that non-linguistic

competencies are highly expected to improve among ESP learners, with all

competencies obtaining mean scores above 4. In this case, no single

competency is statistically expected to improve either more or less than the

others. This suggests that self-assessment, which obtained the highest score,

and creativity, which obtained the lowest, are similarly expected to improve

20 Audiovisual translation practices for language learning in ESP

Hikma 25 (1) (2026), 1 - 25

through free commentary and narration revoicing activities. This implies that

free commentary and narration are suitable for developing additional

competencies in the ESP classroom.

However, these results should be interpreted with caution. Firstly, the

context of this study is an ESP learning environment, meaning that the

outcomes might differ in other instructional approaches or samples with

different characteristics. Therefore, the suitability of different DAT modalities

should be investigated in various teaching and learning contexts. This also

opens the possibility of analysing outcomes in larger sample sizes. In this

study, the number of participants was limited because the course could be

validated by those with a B2 or higher certificate.

Future studies have the potential to qualitatively explore learners’

perceptions of different DAT modalities to further understand how various

linguistic skills and non-linguistic competencies are developed or can be

enhanced through different types of tasks. This research approach could also

incorporate more objective measures of learners’ outcomes to align their

perceptions with more realistic assessments. This requires the creation of

didactic proposals for different DAT modalities in various learning contexts,

such as different ESP disciplines or General English, which could be available

for language practitioners and researchers.

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