Transletters. International Journal of Translation and Interpreting, 8 (2024), pp. 1-33 ISSN 2605-2954

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish

Football Teams

Real Madrid against FC Barcelona

Fernando Sánchez Rodas

University of Malaga

Raquel del Río López

Autonomous University of Barcelona

Received: 02/07/2024

Accepted: 03/12/2024

Abstract

YouTube Shorts (YTS) are a new type of audiovisual content akin to Instagram Reels

and TikTok videos, which has gained increased popularity since its inception. This

article is based on a recent dataset of 329 YTS from Real Madrid and FC Barcelona

football teams (first round of LaLiga 2023-2024 season), and analyses how they employ

multimodal communication and translation to create a brand image aimed at combining

national and international identities. Results yield that the communicative goals are

often pursued through multilingualism, but they also include overlapping semiotic codes

designed to reach universal understandability and content access, such as emojis, proper

names, and hashtags.

Key Words

YouTube Shorts, Real Madrid, FC Barcelona, audiovisual translation, semiotics

 

Introduction

YouTube Shorts (YTS) are a feature introduced by the American company

YouTube as a response to the popularity of short-form video content on social

media platforms like TikTok and Instagram Reels. They are short, vertical videos

with a maximum length of 60 seconds which offer a range of creative tools,

including licensed music tracks (Later.com, 2024). YTS have their own dedicated

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

section within the YouTube app to help viewers discover trending short-form

content, which is personalised based on the viewer’s interests and activity on the

platform.

YouTube’s intent in the creation of YTS in 2019 was to compete with TikTok,

another major online video platform for short clips. Since its inception, the usage

rating of YTS has continuously increased. In April 2022, Alphabet (formerly

Google) said that YTS generated over 30 billion views daily (Sato, 2022).

Reportedly, the number of monthly users also increased from 1.5 billion in 2022

to two billion as of July 2023 (Mehta, 2023). This trend may grow if TikTok is

banned in US territory at some point (Debusmann et al., 2024). The popularity

of YTS has raised concerns within the company, with some believing that it will

“cannibalise” YouTube’s long-form video content (Criddle, 2023). These data

make it necessary for communication and linguistic studies to place more focus

on the analysis of this type of content, which does not exclude translation and/or

interpreting studies. Despite their potential, YTS have been scarcely investigated

in general, let alone linguistically (Navarro-Güere, 2023; Arkida et al., 2024;

Violot et al., 2024). They are the youngest of the three short-form platforms,

which makes them an appealing object of study.

1. Objectives

Due to the emerging nature of the studied YTS format, this article might be one

of the first of its kind according to the researchers’ knowledge. Such condition

is reflected in its objectives:

- To analyse the linguistic and non-linguistic communicative features of a

set of YTS published in the official YouTube channels of FC Barcelona

and Real Madrid, which are taken as representative because of the global

impact of both brands and their number of followers;

- To build a methodological structure able to include a predictably high

number of different semiotic modes or resources in the YTS, with the

aim of making it replicable for the analysis of similar audiovisual

products;

- To determine the degree of multimodality (i.e., co-appearance of

language with other semiotic codes) of the chosen YTS and whether it

contributes to a certain communicative or marketing end;

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

- To specify the number and combination of languages used and the

presence or absence of translation in the YTS, relating these data to the

communicative purposes aforementioned;

- To observe the joint use of translation and non-linguistic codes in the

YTS to uncover possible trends that relate them, and hypothesise the

possible causes.

2. Theoretical background

The background for this study is divided into three parts, starting with a

backtrace of the term “multimodality” and its current meaning in linguistic and

corpus studies (Section 2.1.). Multimodality in translation is also discussed, with

the first need of a differentiation between multimodality and intermodality in

this context (Section 2.2.) Before the methodology, the choice of studying

multimodal translation inside short-form football videos is discussed, also in

relation to the state of the art of football translation and interpreting (Section

2.3).

2.1 Multimodality

The term “multimodality” originated back in the 1920s in the field of the

psychology of perception. More recently, “linguists and discourse analysts have

taken up the term, broadening it to denote the integrated use of different

communicative resources, such as language, image, sound and music in

multimodal texts and communicative events” (van Leeuwen, 2011, p. 668). From

the 1920s onwards, public communication became increasingly multimodal,

something which linguists as well as other scholars noticed. In the course of the

twentieth century, at least five major schools of linguistics engaged with

communicative modes other than language: the Prague School, the Paris School

structuralist semiotics, American linguistics, Hallidayan linguistics, and mediated

discourse analysis (van Leeuwen, 2011, 2023). In recent times, Jewitt et al. (2016)

have identified Systemic Functional Linguistics, Social Semiotics, and

Conversation Analysis as the three most relevant linguistic fields dealing with

multimodality. According to Jewitt et al. (2016, pp. 2-3):

Multimodality questions a strict ‘division of labour’ among the disciplines

traditionally focused on meaning making, on the grounds that in the world

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

we’re trying to account for, different means of meaning making are not

separated but almost always appear together: image with writing, speech with

gesture, math[s] symbolism with writing, and so forth. [...]. This fact only

became more noticeable with the introduction of digital technologies [...].

What the early adopters of the term recognized was not only the need to

look at the co-occurrence and interplay of different means of making

meaning but also that each ‘mode’ offers distinct possibilities and constraints.

In relation to the growing availability of multimodal pieces of communication,

multimodal corpora have been a theoretical and methodological reality for some

time, with its own limitations. Allwood (2008, p. 207) provides differently

narrowed definitions for a multimodal corpus, one of the broadest being “a

computer-based collection of language and communication-related material

drawing on more than one sensory modality or on more than one production

modality.” If we assume that there are five or more sensory modalities (e.g.,

vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste), only two of these have really been made

use of so far in multimodal corpora, namely vision and hearing, which

corresponds to the production modalities of gesture and speech in face-to-face

communication, or writing (drawing, etc.) and recorded speech in indirect

communication (Allwood, 2008, p. 208).

2.2 Multimodality and translation

In the terminology of translation and interpreting studies, semiotic

multimodality should be clearly differentiated from intermodality, that is, the

coexistence or collection of contrasting mediation modes. According to Stecconi

(2009), mediation (speaking on behalf of another) is an existential condition of

translation which differentiates it from other semiotic acts. Since mediated

discourse can be written (translation) or spoken (interpretation), any given text

in any language can be classified into one of four basic mediation modes (i.e.,

non-translated, non-interpreted, translated, or interpreted), plus their

corresponding mediation sub-modes (i.e., sight translation, subtitling, dubbing,

simultaneous interpreting, consecutive interpreting, etc.). However, a variety of

translation and interpreting modes and sub-modes (intermodality) does not

necessarily imply more than one sensory mode, nor their co-appearance with

non-linguistic communication codes (multimodality). For example, one or more

researchers could collect a series of raw written translations and transcribed

interpretations from English into Spanish. This would constitute an intermodal

corpus, but not a multimodal one since there would be only one sensory channel

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

(vision) and no other semiotic code apart from human language. Intermodality

and multimodality do not need each other aprioristically, although

experimentation can yield arguments for strong connections between them (see

Section 4.4. of this paper as an example).

Multimodality has only started to attract the attention of translation scholars in

the last two decades. This is reflected in the progressive addition of

“multimodality” to the new editions of reference translation textbooks and

encyclopaedias (e.g., van Leeuwen, 2011, 2023; Munday et al., 2022). Although

translation and interpreting have been increasingly characterised by

multimodality, translation and interpreting studies have been slow to bridge

these two disciplines (Taylor, 2016). Pérez-González (2020) enumerates some

strands of research within multimodal translation and interpreting studies: layout

and typography, multimedia spaces such as theatres, cinemas, and museums,

iconic-verbal links in printed texts, the translation of polyvocal texts in relation

to digital technology, and embodied multimodality. Relying on the Chinese

context, Wu and Pan (2024, p. 8) cite “the innovative use of new and richer

modalities and multimodal elements in translation in the digital age” as an

“emerging research area” in multimodal translation studies. As the authors note

(Wu and Pan, 2024, p. 5):

The growing interest in multimodality in communication and translation

studies is, to a great extent, due to the development and proliferation of

(new) media technologies that support much richer forms of meaning

making. [...] For example, video producers may use moving visual images,

background music, voice-over, and subtitles in creating a video, while

digital users may employ images, words, hashtags, and hyperlinks when

composing social media posts. With the affordances and constraints of

different modes, each mode contributes to the process of meaning making

and communication.

2.3 Multimodal translation of short-form football videos

One of the new digital, multimodal forms with a greater impact on monolingual

and multilingual communication alike are short-form videos (TikTok, Instagram

Reels, and YouTube Shorts). During the last few years, short-form video content

has gained widespread popularity. Potrel (2022) gives five insights to the appeal

of short-form video content in the current climate, including universal

The concept of intermodality is strongly tied with corpora in translation and interpreting

literature (see Bernardini, 2016).

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

accessibility: “there is a sense of universality to short-form content creation and

consumption. Many popular creators make videos that don’t require individuals

to speak a specific language to understand the video’s visual contents.” The wide

array of video customisation tools offered by each platform contributes to

breaking geographical barriers and allows communication in one or more

languages.

The universality of short-form videos is powered by three main features:

verticality, segmentation, and multi-layered visual semiotics. From the beginning

of the 2020s, the portrait (vertical) screen format has progressively replaced the

traditional landscape (horizontal) format to become the default for mobile video

production and consumption (Cheng and Ye, 2020). Large-scale field studies

together with experimental studies demonstrated that mobile vertical video ads

increase consumer interest and engagement compared to horizontal video ads,

as they are more fluently processed. Additionally, younger mobile users

(Generation Z) process mobile vertical video ads more fluently than older users

from Generations X and Y (Mulier et al., 2021). Furthermore, this type of video

applies the segmentation principle, which advocates that the user understands

the message more easily due to its short duration (Zhang et al., 2023). About

visual semiotics, in a sample of 1,194 short videos from TikTok, Instagram

Reels, and YouTube Shorts, Navarro-Güere (2024) identified the preponderance

of videos with superimposed visual elements divided into several categories:

emojis, stickers, subtitles, logos, chyrons, and so on.

Among the major providers of multilingual short-form content, the two biggest

Spanish football teams (Real Madrid and FC Barcelona) present one of the most

interesting cases for multimodal analysis, with their global economic power as a

first reason. In Forbes’s 2024 list of the world’s most valuable football teams,

Real Madrid and FC Barcelona topped 1st and 3rd respectively, only contested

by Manchester United (Ozanian and Teitelbaum, 2024). This market supremacy

is connected to social media leadership. According to the Centre International

d'Étude du Sport (CIES) Football Observatory, in June 2023 Real Madrid was

the football club with the most followers on Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, and

TikTok (362 million in total), ahead of its rival FC Barcelona with 342 million

(Poli et al., 2023). In YouTube, however, FC Barcelona takes the leading role,

with 17.3 million subscribers against 13.8 million subscribers of Real Madrid at

the date of writing (22nd October 2024)

. Both Spanish clubs are well ahead of

In its YouTube account description, FC Barcelona describes itself as the first sports team in

the world to reach 15 million subscribers on the platform.

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

the third team in the list, Liverpool FC, which has 10.1 million followers at the

date of writing (7.2 million less than Barcelona and 3.7 million less than Madrid).

Both teams are also complementary in their different paths to communicative

success. In the case of Real Madrid, one of the most recent reasons can be found

in the cultivation of emotional attachment through digital marketing during the

COVID-19 pandemic (Baena, 2023). On the other hand, the communicative

processes tied to the (re)production, consumption, and enactment of FC

Barcelona reveal an attempt to manage the tensions created by pursuing global

aspirations while embodying Catalan nationalism (Kassing, 2021). Like other

Spanish clubs, FC Barcelona has successfully explored communication and

marketing practices committed to using its infrastructures as places of football

brand consumption through tourism and event packages (Ginesta, 2017).

As a more specific reason for this choice, delving into the multilingual,

multimodal practices of Real Madrid and FC Barcelona YTS means nourishing

the academic production on football translation and interpreting. Alonso

Araguás and Zapatero Santos (2019, p. 247) focus on the fact that nowadays

several European football teams represent a “multilingual mosaic” with

consequences not only regarding the internal communications —which can be

solved by using English as a lingua franca or taking language courses, among

others—, but also on the need for interpreters of press conferences. This

involves infrastructure for interpreting booths, something that wide-ranging

teams such as FC Barcelona and Real Madrid do have (Alonso Araguás and

Zapatero Santos, 2019). Literature so far includes studies on such interpreting

needs (Sandrelli, 2018; Suarez Lovelle, 2024), case studies on language gap

perception inside football teams (Sandrelli, 2020), and Twitter/X translation

(Baines, 2020), but few can be found on football translation in social media based

on audiovisual formats. References on translation and interpreting inside the

rising industry of women’s football are also missing, as well as the potential of

linguistics and translation to transform gender inequalities in football as a

blueprint for other societal domains, which is enhanced by multimodality and

social media (Graf and Fleischhacker, 2023).

3. Methodology

The advantages of YTS accessibility for consumers contrasts with the

methodological difficulties posed by their complex semiotic structure. The

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

simultaneous layering of different linguistic inputs (oral speeches, subtitles, copy

text, superimposed titles, etc.) hardens the application of consolidated translation

methods like corpus collection and annotation, and practically most kinds of

automated data collection systems are normally not as advanced as to recognise

linguistic and non-linguistic data simultaneously. In the YTS dataset of this

article, such difficulties were represented by at least three factors:

- A considerable percentage of input could not be read by YouTube’s

public automatic transcription system, such as texts in boards and

chyrons, or subtitles embedded in the uploaded Short.

- Written language was usually mixed with non-linguistic or hybrid signs,

like emojis or hashtags. This was especially true for the copy text

accompanying each video, frequently written in a hybrid language close

to instant messaging.

- Serious multimodal analysis required annotating all the possible semiotic

modes, which included fully non-linguistic elements, like logos or emojis.

The best researcher tools thus become careful phasing, observation, and

annotation, described in Sections 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3.

3.1 Dataset

The selected YTS for this study were extracted from the official YouTube

channels of the Spanish football teams Real Madrid

and FC Barcelona.

With

the aim of having a broad sample and a temporal logic, it was decided to

encompass Real Madrid and FC Barcelona’s YTS published on the first full lap

of LaLiga, between 11th August 2023 and 4th January 2024 (Malagón, 2023).

The videos were hyperlinked in Google Sheets,

and the following general

parameters were introduced:

- Date of Short publication as appearing on YouTube.

- Team (Real Madrid or FC Barcelona);

- Men’s/women’s league.

https://www.youtube.com/@realmadrid/shorts (Last accessed: 22/10/2024)

https://www.youtube.com/@FCBarcelona/shorts (Last accessed: 22/10/2024]

Final dataset uploaded to Zenodo (https://zenodo.org/records/14008599)

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

3.2 Linguistic annotation

In a first annotation round, the main goal was to detect the use of linguistic

resources in each individual YTS. Here, “linguistic” is understood as using one

or more of the human conventional codes referred to as “languages,” regardless

of the production mode (written or oral). Broadly based on Navarro-Güere

(2024), the identified linguistic resources are shown in Table 1:

Category

Semiotic

resource

Description

Examples

Non-

Linguistic

Emojis

Graphical

icons

representing

words,

concepts or

attitudes

widely

employed in

popular social

media: the

“lingua franca

of digital age”

(Leonardi,

2022: 22)

Receba 󰕳󰕴󰕵󰕶󰕷󰕸󰕹 Pedri

(https://www.youtube.com/shorts/PHcIfk4OZs4)

Logos

The crest of

each team,

printed on the

YTS to

demarcate the

authorship

and property

of the images

[Real Madrid, logo]

(https://www.youtube.com/shorts/qFvT6U-zTAI)

Numbers

Numerical

notations are

semiotically

and causally

linked to, but

distinct from,

both the

numeral

words of their

users’

languages and

the writing

systems used

to encode

language

visually

Marc Guiu. 󰕂󰕃󰕄󰣚󰣛󰣜 23 seconds. 1 dream come true.

(https://www.youtube.com/shorts/SmybK0N2NaE)

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

Hybrid

Hashtags

Pound sign

(#) followed

by one or

more letters

excluding

spaces which

normally form

a word or a

phraseme

 ¡VAMOOOOOOS! #elclásico #realmadrid

(https://www.youtube.com/shorts/EI_ZKaH4FqI)

Proper

names

Names from

any language

are signs that

often function

meaningfully

in different

ways

simultaneously

󱊡󱊢󱊣󱊤󱊥 BELLING󰁁󰁂󰁃󰁄󰁁󰁂󰁃󰁄󰁁󰁂󰁃󰁄L 󱊡󱊢󱊣󱊤󱊥

(https://www.youtube.com/shorts/QDM7sNxIVcM)

Table 2. Non-linguistic and hybrid resources in YTS

The category of hybrid semiotic resources is clarified before the analysis.

Hashtags and proper names are labelled as hybrid resources because they both

start from linguistic signifiers, but their semiosis reveals more functions or

associations than the originally linguistic one. In the case of hashtags, writing

one or more words without spaces and a pound sign creates in some digital

environments a tag that not only indexes an individual message, but also makes

it possible to store and consult the contributions of other people using the same

characters. Therefore, clicking on a hashtag creates an interaction between

network users which is impossible in traditional language (La Rocca, 2020).

Regarding proper names, although they may function primarily as designators,

they often express other meanings because of previous contexts of the word,

existing associations with the referent, and/or simple prosodic suggestiveness

(Smith, 2006). For instance, the name Bellingham is etymologically obscure even

for English native speakers, but it creates associations for them and several other

millions of humans speaking very different languages.

Whereas common nouns

provide a symbolic characterisation, proper nouns provide a symbolic

identification, in the same manner a handmade sketch would differ from a

Review the example in Table 2, where the proper name Bellingham is associated not only with a

Spanish noun, but with integrated emojis. This combination reinforces the sense that the

semiosis of the name goes beyond its original Englishness (󱊡󱊢󱊣󱊤󱊥 BELLING󰁁󰁂󰁃󰁄󰁁󰁂󰁃󰁄󰁁󰁂󰁃󰁄L 󱊡󱊢󱊣󱊤󱊥).

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

photograph (Hoffmann, 1999). This is an argument for a different semiotic

behaviour, more flexible and universal than other linguistic units.

4. Analysis

The analysis of the YTS dataset was divided into four subsections, reflecting the

complex communicative nature of YTS. As a preamble, a general count is

provided in Table 3. After this table, Sections 4.1. and 4.2. comment thoroughly

on the linguistic resources employed by FC Barcelona and Real Madrid. Two

features were analysed simultaneously: the type of linguistic resource (subtitle,

copy, audio track, etc.) and the documented use of languages. Section 4.3.

presents the compared data for non-linguistic and hybrid resources in each team

(numbers, emojis, logos, proper names, and hashtags). Since linguistic, non-

linguistic, and hybrid resources were superseded, the totals in Sections 4.1. to

4.3. do not represent a number of videos but of instances, that is, cases extracted

from each video. For example, one video containing an English copy, emojis,

proper names, and one team crest yielded a total of four instances, one per each

category. This makes Sections 4.1.-4.3. the most fine-grained part of the analysis.

Section 4.4. focuses on translation. It analyses the treatment of subtitles and

copies and assigns one of three categories accordingly: translation, non-

translation, or a combination of both. The three groups were also linked to the

occurrence of non-linguistic or hybrid units, to prove if specific associations can

be found. The counts in Section 4.4. are on whole videos rather than instances:

its objective is to provide an overview of translation usage in YTS. The

categories in Section 4.4. are aligned with the conceptualisation of Stecconi

(2009).

Men’s league

Women’s

league

Both leagues

Total

FC Barcelona

189

194

Real Madrid

131

135

329

Table 3. Dataset overview

Another fact that supports universal semiosis is the frequent integration of names and hashtags.

Hashtags were annotated as such regardless of their composition, but a closer look reveals that

they are often formed by proper names in different languages (#realmadrid, #ucl, #LaFábrica,

etc.). Names are a preferred resource for indexation, which can be interpreted as a feature of

universality.

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

The dataset overview in Table 3 shows that the analysed teams published a total

of 329 YTS during the first lap of LaLiga 2023-2024. Of all videos, 194 were

published by FC Barcelona (59%) and 135 by Real Madrid (41%). If we consider

that the total number of days in this period is 147, FC Barcelona published an

average of 1.3 videos per day, and Real Madrid an average of 0.9. In gender

terms, it is noteworthy that the vast majority of YTS from both teams were made

up of content from the Spanish men’s league (320, 97%); the women’s league

and few mixed content had a marginal representation in the dataset. The relative

percentage of women’s content was slightly higher in Real Madrid (4 out of 135,

2.96%) than in Barcelona (5 out of 194, 2.58%).

4.1 Linguistic resources (FC Barcelona)

In FC Barcelona, linguistic resources covered a total of 265 semiotic instances

among the 194 YTS (almost 1.4 linguistic instances per video). These were

divided into 13 different language combinations, made of up to 10 languages:

Basque, Catalan, Dutch, English, French, German, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish,

and Turkish

(see Table 4). Standalone English was the most represented

language (69.8%), followed by standalone Spanish (12.8%) and the English +

Spanish combination (4.1%). Standalone Catalan ranked at fourth place (3.4%),

followed by further combinations: Catalan + English, Catalan + Spanish, among

others. These results indicate that Spanish is not the preferred language of FC

Barcelona’s YTS, but neither is Catalan, therefore English is generally adopted

as a halfway solution.

Audible

language

Boards

Chyrons

Copy

Subtitles

Total

instances

(language

combination

English

152

185

Spanish

English +

Spanish

Catalan

Portuguese

Catalan +

Natural languages (excluding Emoji).

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

English

Catalan +

Spanish

Catalan +

English +

Spanish

Basque +

Catalan +

Dutch +

German +

Polish +

Portuguese

+ Spanish +

Turkish

Catalan +

English +

Portuguese

+ Spanish

English +

Emoji

English +

French +

German

French

Total

instances

(resource

type)

168

TOTAL:

265

(in 194 YTS)

Table 4. FC Barcelona’s linguistic resources

The prevailing type of linguistic resource in FC Barcelona were copies (63.4%)

and audible language (23.8%). Within the audio tracks, the most heard language

was standalone Spanish (31 instances out of 63), beating standalone English (9

out of 63). Catalan + Spanish, which was the third most frequent case of audible

language (5 out of 63), outbeat both standalone Catalan and the rest of

combinations. Subtitles, which were the third linguistic resource by frequency

(7.2%), presented a similar distribution: the use of Catalan subtitles was marginal

(2 out of 19) in favour of standalone English (16 out of 19), and Catalan was

always subtitled in combination with other languages. These numbers are further

proof of the inconsistent use of Catalan in FC Barcelona’s YTS.

The use of chyrons (3.4%), where English is also predominant, deserves an

illustration. Chyrons encourage greater comprehensibility among followers and

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

capture their attention. In the selected example (Figure 1), the chyron operated

as a headline for a succession of ratings assigned to a player (Ferrán Torres) in

his goal-shooting training.

These ratings were expressed with numerated emojis,

showing the use of linguistic and non-linguistic elements to convey meaning.

Figure 1. Chyron with emojis and numbers (FC Barcelona). Retrieved from the Instagram

account of @FCBarcelona.

Boards were the least used but still documented type of linguistic resource

(2.3%). Interestingly, this is the resource where language distribution was more

balanced: each of the seven cases spotted presented a different distribution of

standalone or mixed languages, with Catalan and Spanish equalling English. In

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/9HTSc1lgExE (Last accessed: 22/10/2024).

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

the example shown in Figure 2,

the Short did not contain audible language but

a row of boards held by the player Pedri as the main meaning-maker element.

Figure 2. Board use (FC Barcelona). Retrieved from the Instagram account of @FCBarcelona.

A final linguistic example for FC Barcelona had only one hit in our dataset, but

is of semiotic interest and was replicated in Real Madrid.

Figure 3 represents a

case where an English copy was also composed of an emoji perfectly integrated

in the language syntax.

The emoji of an animal appeared in place of the

abbreviation GOAT (“Greatest Of All Time”) referred to Lionel Messi, making

that emoji part of the noun phrase and thus of the sentence. Besides, Spanish

was the only audible language in this Short which also displayed translated

English subtitles, making the case for multilingualism altogether.

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/4ASrhj-Lj7A (Last accessed: 22/10/2024).

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/tBdCLJSig_4 and

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/yXry7wmc6UA (Last accessed: 22/10/2024).

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/Mip5_CPcG54 (Last accessed: 22/10/2024).

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

Figure 3. English + Emoji copy (FC Barcelona). Retrieved from the Instagram account of

@FCBarcelona.

4.2. Linguistic resources (Real Madrid)

As gathered in Table 5, Real Madrid’s dataset presented a subtly higher density

of linguistic instances per YTS (199 instances for 135 Shorts, around 1.5 per

video). However, the number of linguistic combinations was strikingly lower

than FC Barcelona’s (five different combinations covering three natural

languages plus emoji integration). As in the rival team, standalone English took

the lead with 40.2% of the instances (80 out of 199). English + Spanish was

more common than in FC Barcelona (30.1%), with standalone Spanish at third

place (28.1%). It was surprising to observe that standalone Spanish was less

prominent in Real Madrid than Barcelona, regardless of alleged political

interests.

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

Audible

language

Boards

Chyrons

Copy

Subtitles

Total

instances

(language

combination

English

English +

Spanish

English +

Emoji

English +

French

Total

instances

(resource

type)

107

TOTAL:

199

(in 135

Shorts)

Table 5. Real Madrid linguistic resources

Moving to resource types, copies (53.8%) and audible language (34.7%) were

again the most frequent cases before subtitling (11.5%). As in FC Barcelona, the

vast majority of Madrid videos had their audible language in standalone Spanish

(46 out of 69), and the preference for copies in standalone English was also

noticeable (67 out of 107).

In contrast to FC Barcelona, no boards or chyrons were observed in Real Madrid

YTS. However, there was a more significant presence of subtitles than in the

Catalonian team. Double subtitling in English and Spanish was also a distinctive

feature when compared to FC Barcelona, which had only one case against the

20 instances in Real Madrid. An example of this phenomenon is shown in Figure

4, a Short from the welcoming of goalkeeper Kepa.

Audible language is Spanish

only, and the copy is written in English.

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/q6pVte_wY74 (Last accessed: 22/10/2024)

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

Figure 4. English + Spanish subtitles (Real Madrid). Retrieved from the Instagram account of

@realmadrid.

The English + Spanish double writing was also present in Real Madrid copies,

probably to boost universality. In the case of bilingual subtitles and copy

represented in Figure 5, the emojis around the copy also provided meaning

despite initially being non-linguistic elements.

The laughing face emoji was

placed before the beginning of the sentence, acting as a topic introducer and

adding extra information not conveyed linguistically (humorous video). Closing

the sequence, the Christmas tree emoji reinforced another topic of the video,

functioning as an engaging or phatic element. This is a relevant note because

copies also act as video titles in YouTube, visible before clicking and watching

each Short. As a matter of fact, in Figure 5 emojis were only placed around the

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/uRyAePhLvvE (Last accessed: 22/10/2024)

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

English copy, which could be an extra indicator of universality and/or raw

communicative economy.

Figure 5. English + Spanish subtitles and copy (Real Madrid). Retrieved from the Instagram

account of @madrid4356.

4.3. Non-linguistic and hybrid resources

Figure 6 reveals the use of non-linguistic resources ―emojis, logos and

numbers―, as well as hybrid resources ―hashtags and proper names― in FC

Barcelona and Real Madrid YTS. A total of 896 instances were found in the sum

of both categories (493 in Barcelona, 433 in Real Madrid). Averagely, this made

them more frequent than purely linguistic resources, with 2.5 occurrences per

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

video in FC Barcelona and 3.2 in Real Madrid. 51.3% of the resources were non-

linguistic (460 instances) and 48.7% were hybrid (436 instances).

Figure 6. Non-linguistic and hybrid resources (Barcelona and Madrid)

The teams did not differ much in the communicative techniques used ―mainly

hashtags and emojis―, although they slightly changed their frequency of use. FC

Barcelona used more hashtags (170 against 155 from Real Madrid), emojis (180

against 126), and proper names (88 against 23), while Real Madrid only surpassed

FC Barcelona in the use of logos (133 against 82 in the Catalonian team).

Numbers were the least frequent resource in these categories, although similarly

represented: 25 cases in FC Barcelona and 16 in Real Madrid.

4.4. Translations and non-translations

The last study object was the presence of translation and/or non-translation

together with non-linguistic and hybrid resources. For this comparison, the

number of YTS obtained from both teams was structured in three large modes:

Non-Translation (N-T), Translation (T), and Non-Translation + Translation (N-

T + T). Figures 7 and 8 provide an overview of the total distributions for each

100

150

200

Emojis

Logos

NumbersHashtags

Proper Names

Real Madrid FC Barcelona

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

team. Figures 9 to 11 break down each of the three groups to show the co-

occurrence of (non-)translations with non-linguistic or less linguistic resources.

Figure 7. Translations and non-translations in FC Barcelona YTS

Figure 8. Translations and non-translations in Real Madrid YTS

N-T (177)

T (12)

N-T +T (3)

N-T (96)

T (3)

N-T + T (36)

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

Figure 9. N-T with non-linguistic and hybrid resources

Figure 10. T with non-linguistic and hybrid resources

100

120

140

160

180

N-T

numbers

N-T

emojis

N-T

w/ logos

N-T

proper

names

N-T

hashtags

88 84

164

77 77

154

Real Madrid

FC Barcelona

T w/

numbers

T w/

emojis

T w/

logos

T w/

proper

names

T w/

hashtags

Real Madrid

FC Barcelona

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

Figure 11. N-T + T with non-linguistic and hybrid resources

As shown in Figures 7 and 8, the total number of YTS with translations

amounted to 54 out of 329 (16.4%). Among them, 15 YTS presented standalone

translations (4.5%). These were mostly translated subtitles, from English to

Spanish,

Spanish to English,

or other directions like Catalan to English.

The

other 39 YTS displayed translated and untranslated text simultaneously (11.9%).

Although N-T + T was the preferred display among all YTS, Real Madrid was

the team providing most cases (36 videos, 26.7% of its dataset), whereas FC

Barcelona preferred T (12 videos, 6.2% of its dataset). In relation to Figures 9 to

11 (non-linguistic and hybrid resources), both T and N-T+T preferred

appearance with emojis and hashtags. This is in line with the general frequencies

presented in Section 4.3.

Some of the most suggestive examples of translation could be found in the N-T

+ T bilingual copies from both teams. Whereas translated subtitles tended to be

more literal or straightforward, multilingual copies presented skilful pieces of

idiomatic, creative translation which conveyed emphatic meanings in the small

space available, without compromising naturality and attractiveness. In Figure

12, a talented goal by Real Madrid striker Vinicius Jr. made the English

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/zwfKSGiRSLI (Last accessed: 22/10/2024)

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/RSv4v1rDNEc (Last accessed: 22/10/2024)

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/YF3rEr0qEgk (Last accessed: 22/10/2024)

N-T + T

numbers

N-T + T

w/ emojis

N-T + T

w/ logos

N-T + T

proper

names

N-T + T

hashtags

13013

Real Madrid

FC Barcelona

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

copywriter feel “speechless.”

In absence of an easy equivalent adjective in

Spanish, the translator (who may or may not be the same person) opted for a

more descriptive solution using the verb phrase dejar sin palabras a alguien (lit.

“leave someone without words”): Cómo dejarte sin palabras, by Vini Jr. The

surrounding emojis of an explosion and a banging head are not as linguistically

integrated as in Figure 3, but the translator may have leaned on their semiosis to

render the Spanish message.

Figure 12. N-T + T copy (Real Madrid). Retrieved from the Instagram account of

@realmadrid.

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/gvlzIPhzDik (Last accessed: 22/10/2024)

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

In some copies, the integration of several languages, emojis, and other semiotic

resources in the same string of text went as far as to push the boundaries of

translation and non-translation, making it difficult to distinguish one from

another. In Figure 13, FC Barcelona players and coaches celebrate the

qualification to the Champions League knock-outs.

The copy used Spanish first

(¡Vamos! Familia) and then English (“Qualified!”), as well as different emojis and

hashtags. It is not easy for an external observer to determine whether the second

is a free translation of the first, or if the copy as a whole should be taken as a

case of translingual writing. The chosen annotation was non-translation

considering the general strategies used by FC Barcelona. There is also the fact

that English added information not reflected in the footage or any other element

(qualification as the reason for the team’s happiness).

Figure 13. N-T copy (FC Barcelona). Retrieved from the Instagram account of @FCBarcelona.

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/H9SAeMgK18A (Last accessed: 22/10/2024)

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

5. Results

The results of our quantitative-qualitative analysis of 329 football YTS show

that, in the analysed period, this was a form of audiovisual communication

preferred by FC Barcelona (1.3 videos per day) over Real Madrid (0.9). Both

teams, however, published around one video per day, which is a considerable

effort bearing the semiotic complexity of their layout. The still marginal number

of women’s or genre-mixed content was impressive (3% of the total), even more

so in the case of FC Barcelona, whose women’s team has broken several world

records

. No other gender or LGBTQIA+ references were documented.

Linguistically, the two teams presented sharp differences. They both made

extensive use of isolated English as their first language (69.8% FC Barcelona,

40.2% Real Madrid), but, at a second level, FC Barcelona used more standalone

Spanish (12.8%) and Real Madrid preferred the English + Spanish combination

(30.1%). Contrary to what could be expected, in FC Barcelona standalone

Catalan had few hits (3.4%) and was preferred in combination with the other

major languages (English and Spanish). Language combination and diversity was

another major difference between FC Barcelona and Real Madrid: the

Catalonian team displayed eight more combinations and seven more natural

languages than the team from the Spanish capital, which had a more uniform

approach in this sense. It could be argued from the data that FC Barcelona

adopts a more multilingual, inclusive take in YTS to directly appeal to a global

audience, even when that means to compromise Spanish, or even the identifying

use of Catalan seen in other communicative contexts. Although Real Madrid’s

frequent use of English also shows an effort to create a means of communication

linguistically accessible for all, it is more strongly tied to the simultaneous use of

Spanish as a strategy to strike a balance with Spain’s identity.

The most frequent hybrid and non-linguistic resources in the sum of both teams

were hashtags (325 cases) and emojis (306), followed by logos (215), proper

names (111), and numbers (41). They were denser than linguistic resources (2.5.

per video in FC Barcelona and 3.2. in Real Madrid). Hashtags were especially

prevalent, as they appeared in 0.98 of all the videos. The aforementioned use of

English is a gate of entrance to the global audience of YTS, and the high number

of hashtags seems a sticking glue to retain consumers and build their loyalty. By

interacting with hashtags, viewers can access deeper content of their favourite

https://www.fcbarcelona.es/es/futbol/femenino-a/noticias/4027693/el-primer-poquer-de-

la-historia (Last accessed: 22/10/2024)

Multimodal Translation in YouTube Shorts from Spanish Football Teams

team, and anchor key words and expressions showcasing the assets of the clubs

(#ChampionsLeague, #JoaoFelix, #RMCity, #ElClasico, etc.). Interestingly

enough, a wide range of hashtags happened to be proper names too.

Finally, in relation to translation practice, it was present in 16.4% of the YTS,

although in different forms. The simultaneous display of original and translation

(N-T + T), which is rare in other mainstream communicative products, was the

rule in this dataset (11.9%). Standalone translations were scarcer (4.5%), mostly

translated subtitles of audio tracks in other languages. Translations, either

standalone or paired with their originals, preferred to appear with emojis rather

than with hashtags, which speaks of a suitable integration between those icons

and language(s). Once again, the eagerness to attract global followers generated

noteworthy examples of communicative creativeness with blurred lines between

different languages, or between linguistic and non-linguistic codes too.

6. Conclusions

This study aimed at being one of the first to relate translation to YTS, especially

in the field of football communication. It developed a method for the

communicative study of the highly multi-faceted YTS, which tried to extract all

the linguistic and non-linguistic pieces of such complex puzzles and distribute

them over the table. The result was a qualitative-quantitative overview of a recent

dataset from two of the most followed YouTube accounts worldwide, that is,

Real Madrid and FC Barcelona.

The most valuable contribution of this research is probably a methodological

structure which can be easily applied to the semiotic study of YTS on completely

different topics, but also to other short-form videos (Reels and TikTok), making

room for multilingualism. This could represent a differentiating help for

translation, linguistics, and communication researchers in a societal context

where short-form verticality is increasingly favoured over the traditional screens

of TV and cinema, and even over long-format internet videos. At the same time,

we are aware that our method can be enriched with further semiotic types and

leaves margin for improvement, especially in the division of linguistic, hybrid,

and non-linguistic resources. Designing proper names as “hybrid” or emojis as

“non-linguistic” was mostly a methodological choice to systematise our work,

but practice revealed that such lines may be redrawn. Emojis presented cases of

full integration into language and can be generated with combinations of

Fernando Sánchez Rodas, Raquel del Río López

linguistic and paralinguistic signs, while some researchers may prefer to

categorise proper names as wholly linguistic items. A different or refined

taxonomy could serve as a first step to unveil a grammar of integrated linguistic

and non-linguistic arrangements, with patterns repeating over time.

Translation and interpreting studies are fostered through this study to make

transitions to the new short-form paradigm, as these audiovisual products

address massive audiences worldwide and require a high degree of

understandability regardless of their original language or context. In this sense,

our own research could also evolve over time, with future studies looking for

finer categories of audiovisual translation (dubbing, voice over, different forms

of subtitling, etc.) and clearer trends of language pairs and directions within

YouTube Shorts.

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