Transletters. International Journal of Translation and Interpreting, 9(2025), pp. 1-26 ISSN 2605-2954

Application of a translation problems typology

A helpful pre- and post-translating didactic resource

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán

Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona

Cristián Araya Medel

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso

Received: 04/06/2025

Accepted: 15/10/2025

Abstract

Identifying translation problems, classifying them, and considering the most suitable

strategies for solving them can be a helpful learning approach to develop strategic

competence in translation trainees. On this assumption, we introduced students in

Spain and Chile to a specific translation problems typology (TPT) for two years, and

used it as a pre-translation task, for early stages of translation training, and as a post-

translation task, for advanced stages. Then, a study comprising a survey and a

questionnaire was conducted to determine whether trainees perceived this pedagogical

approach and the TPT as helpful to solve translation problems, make fewer mistakes

in the translation tasks, reflect upon their translation process and increase their

knowledge about Translation Studies. Undergraduate and graduate students from both

countries participated in the study. The results obtained suggest that both the TPT

and the pedagogical approach are effective and that their usefulness and contribution

are significant at different learning stages of the translation learning stages.

Keywords

Pedagogical tools for translation training, strategic competence development,

translation problems, translation problems classification, translation training.

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

INTRODUCTION

Strategic competence (SC) is included in most of the generally accepted

translation competence (TC) models (EMT expert Group, 2022; Kelly, 2005;

PACTE, 2000/2018). It was defined in PACTE’s early TC model (2000, p.

101) as “all the individual procedures, conscious and unconscious, verbal and

non-verbal, used to solve the problems found during the translation process.”

In this model, SC is considered to govern or manage all other competences,

evidencing their interrelation. Kelly’s TC model (2005) also includes SC as a

governing competence over all other competences and is defined as

“encompassing all the procedures applied to carry out organizational and

planning skills, problem identification and problem-solving, monitoring, self-

assessment, and revision” (Kelly, 2005, p. 85). Moreover, in Kelly’s model,

what is referred to as ‘transfer competence’ in many other models such as

PACTE’s, is included in SC. This is based on Kaiser-Cooke’s idea (1994, p.

137) that from the perspective of an expert activity, translation is primarily a

problem-solving activity “which involves problem recognition as well as

decision-making, since recognition of the problem necessarily precedes

decisions as to the various strategies which can be taken to solve it.” Problem

solving and decision making are also mentioned in the TC model of the

Tuning project and included among instrumental competences (González &

Wagenaar, 2003). More recently, the EMT expert Group has also stressed the

importance of SC when stating that TC should encompass “not only the actual

meaning transfer phase between two languages […] but also all the strategic,

methodological and thematic competences that come into play before, during

and following the transfer phase per se” (DGT, 2022, p. 7). Developing SC in

translation trainees is, therefore, one of translation training’s overall goals.

Translation problems have been studied by many scholars of Translation

Studies (Angelone, 2010; Bell, 1991/1998; Calvo, 2018; Dancette, 1997; Deebs,

2005; De la Cova, 2017; González-Davies & Scott-Tennent, 2005; Hansen,

1997; Hurtado, 2001/2011; Kiraly, 1995; Krings, 1986; Lörscher, 1991;

Mayoral, 2001; Miremadi, 1991; Muñoz, 2000; Nord, 1988/2005; Palumbo,

2009; Pavlović, 2010; Pym, 2017; Szymyślik, 2019; Toury, 2010; Way, 2014;

Wilss, 1994/1998), although the approaches are very different and there is no

consensus regarding the notion and the different aspects of translation

problems. There are basically two reasons for this lack of consensus. Firstly,

scholars have approached the concept from abstract, theoretical perspectives

(e.g., Toury, 2010) or methodological and professional perspectives (e.g.,

Application of a translation problems typology

Calvo, 2018). Secondly, the notion of translation problem is a complex issue,

often associated with a particular model of translation process and/or

translation competence model. Many scholars have different opinions on key

elements involved, such as the importance of the translator’s experience when

facing a problem, the automation and speed of problem-solving, the existence

of different strategies to solve the problems, or the reactivity to the context

underlying the problem (De la Cova, 2017). For example, regarding the

importance of the previous experience or level of competence of the translator

when facing a translation problem, González-Davies and Scott-Tennent (2005)

argue that:

One important difference between beginner translators and experienced

translators is the ability of the latter to spot a problem and to apply

adequate strategies and procedures to solve it efficiently and as quickly as

possible – the period between spotting the problem and solving it may go

from a split second to whole days or weeks (p. 162).

This contrasts with Nord’s (1988/2005, p. 166) definition of a translation

problem, which states that a translation problem is “an objective (or inter-

subjective) transfer task which every translator (irrespective of their level of

competence and of the technical working conditions) has to solve during a

particular translation process.” Another example of disagreement among

scholars can be seen in the possible strategies —also called translation

procedures, operations, techniques, or solutions— that can be used to address

the problems arising from the absence of a total or direct equivalent in a

specific segment of a translation assignment. The points of view are entirely

opposed and controversial, not only in terms of types and use of possible

strategies, but also regarding their importance: many scholars keep considering

translation procedures the quintessence of Translation Studies (TS), while

others view them as a theoretical anachronism (Zabalbeascoa, 2000).

Without the intention of delving into this lack of consensus, but to

approach the subject from a more practical point of view, we aim to explore

the contributions to the pedagogy of translation by focusing on the applied

methodology of a translation problems typology (TPT) in both pre-translation

and post-translation stages. This innovative approach of applying a TPT at

different stages of the translation process —and in two different countries—

contributes to pedagogy of translation by proposing a new methodology in

translator training. The methodology has been applied for two years in order to

gather evidence to support the inclusion of this type of teaching exercise,

which may be of interest to other institutions engaged in translator training.

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

After discussing the theoretical framework on translation problems from a

teaching perspective, this paper describes the study design methodology —

including the survey and questionnaire that were conducted in four working

groups at two universities: one in Spain and another one in Chile— and then

provides an analysis of the results on the students’ perception of this

pedagogical approach. Finally, conclusions based on the findings are discussed.

1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

For the purposes of this article and the application of the translation problem

typology, we adhere to the following definition of translation problem offered

by Deeb: “A translation problem is whatever presents obstacles in transferring

the content of one piece of language into another whether the latter be an

element (word), string of elements (clause), a phrase, a grammatical pattern or

even a whole text” (Deeb, 2005, p. 3). Additionally, Deeb (2005) distinguishes

between the pre-translation and the post-translation approaches to problems,

which is particularly useful in pedagogical terms, as it aligns with the way the

TPT is used in the research study groups. The former involves identifying the

problem while analysing the source text before translating, while the latter

implies detecting an error made because a problem was not identified. This

dichotomy was previously mentioned by Krings (1986, p. 266), who asserted

that translation pedagogy has been attempting to either “predict translation

problems prospectively based on a linguistic account of the source-language

text or to identify translation problems retrospectively by an error analysis of

the target-language text the subjects produced.” Both approaches are in line

with the two different pedagogical activities related to the use of a translation

problem typology made by the authors of this article, that is, the pre-

translation one used in Spain and the post-translation one used in Chile.

The issue of identifying a translation problem brings us to the problem-

solving stages, since identifying a problem is usually the initial step in this

process. As Angelone (2010, p. 17) states: “The translation task is essentially a

chain of decision-making activities relying on multiple, interconnected

sequences of problem-solving behaviour for successful task completion.”

Angelone (2010) suggests that there are three steps: problem recognition,

solution proposal and solution evaluation. Dancette (1997, p. 86) also

mentioned three steps, although they were different: “problem identification

(reception of initial data, first interpretation, awareness of goals and

Application of a translation problems typology

constraints), data processing (comparisons, classifications, inferences,

deductions, construction of propositions and images, transformations, and so

on), and response (monitoring, revision, and decision making).”

To sum up, as Way (2014) concludes, after reflecting upon the views of

various TS scholars such as Wilss (1998) and González-Davies and Scott-

Tennent (2005), decision making and problem solving are intertwined, because

to solve a problem a decision must be made. After careful consideration of all

the models mentioned, for the purposes of this article and the pedagogical

implementation of the didactic materials presented, the authors have decided

to apply the translation problems typology of Orozco-Jutorán (2016) which

includes four stages: a) identification of a problem, b) decision on the

appropriate strategies to solve it, c) solution of the problem, and d) assessment

and reflection (metacognitive stage).

1.1. The translation problems typology (TPT) as a pedagogical tool

In our field, there are several authors who have approached the translation

problems from pragmatic and textual perspectives (House, 1981),

methodological perspectives based on cultural norms and conventions (Toury,

2010), practical approaches (Newmark, 2010), empirical studies (Lachat, 2003),

functionalism (Nord, 2005), and pedagogy (Hurtado, 2011; Muñoz, 2000;

Orozco-Jutorán, 2016). Since our approach is circumscribed within didactics,

we have applied Orozco-Jutorán’s (2016) typological proposal for the

development of our empirical study.

This TPT is designed to enable trainees to choose and reflect upon the

strategies employed so that they can find the resources (linguistic or

extralinguistic) and establish the appropriate criteria to solve the problems

(Orozco-Jutorán, 2016). Way (2014, p. 139) states that classifying translation

problems is important because this enables trainees to progressively acquire the

necessary skills to justify their decisions and thus “decision making becomes

internalized and offers the tools to better visualise, understand and justify

decisions throughout training and in professional practice.” This is the spirit

behind the TPT presented here. The TPT was created to be used in the

translation class as a pedagogical resource and it covers the whole translation

process, following the three fundamental cognitive processes described by

Angelone (2010): 1) source language comprehension, 2) source-language-target

language transfer of meaning, and 3) target language production.

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

As can be seen in Table 1, three of the four translation problem types —

comprehension, transfer, and rewriting problems— are divided into two sub-

categories: linguistic and extralinguistic, and the pragmatic one is the only one

that is not divided into sub-categories because the reflection and possible

research needed to solve the type of problem is not related to any linguistic or

extralinguistic aspects. Pragmatic problems arise from the translation brief or

the communicative context of the translation. The solution, therefore, involves

a metacognitive task, since the translator needs to reflect and, in many cases,

contact the client to find out, for instance, where the target text (TT) will be

published.

1. Comprehension problem. These problems arise when one element is

not understood, and they can be either:

• Linguistic (terms, idioms, syntactic structures, cohesion, phraseology, etc.)

• Extralinguistic: cultural elements (i.e., a custom or tradition that does not

exist in the target culture), encyclopaedic knowledge (i.e., general knowledge

about the world and the specific vision of the world of the source language

and culture), or domain-related knowledge (i.e., lack of knowledge of a

concept due to the specificity of the domain: law, economics, sciences,

engineering, etc.)

2. Transfer problem. These problems arise when one element may be

literally translated, resulting in an incomprehensible or not idiomatic form in

the target language or culture. It can also arise when the typical or

traditional way of translating one element does not work in that specific

context. These are problems resulting from differences between the two

languages at the lexical, morphosyntactic, stylistic or textual level and can be

either:

• Linguistic (false friends, idioms, syntactic structures more frequently used

in the source than in the target language, punctuation used differently in

both languages, etc.)

• Extralinguistic (cultural or domain-specific elements that may appear odd

in the target culture if translated literally, e.g., non-existent customs, symbols,

acronyms, or abbreviations that have different meanings)

3. Rewriting problem. These problems arise when an element of the

source text seems to have been understood but is nonetheless difficult to

rewrite or rephrase in the target language in an idiomatic, natural way or in

the adequate mode, register, tenor, or language variety. This type of problem

can be either:

• Linguistic (terms that cannot be repeated because of style, idioms that do

not have a clear equivalent in the target language, nuances in meaning

Application of a translation problems typology

difficult to express in a natural way, syntactic structures or verb tenses or

modes that do not coincide with those of the target language, etc.)

• Extralinguistic (for instance, finding an adequate translation or the

proper translation procedure to explain, adapt, substitute, etc. cultural

elements, encyclopaedic or domain-related knowledge.)

4. Pragmatic problem. These problems arise when the translation brief

(implicit or explicit) implies making changes in the target text because of the

potential reader of the TT, the communicative context, or some other

important element. These problems can be related to intention, assumptions,

or implicit elements in the source text, as well as to the characteristics of the

target reader, the mode, and the communicative context of the target text.

Table 1. Translation problems typology (TPT)

1.2. Examples of using the TPT in the classroom

The rationale for separating linguistic and extralinguistic problems is that the

sources for researching to find the solution to the problems in the two cases

are very different. Let us see an example. Table 2 shows two paragraphs of a

text written in English.

My flat was at the first floor in a new block behind Langham Place. There was

a common staircase, with a porter and a liftman at the entrance, but there was

no restaurant or anything of that sort, and each flat was quite shut off from

the others.

[…] I was just fitting my key into the door when I noticed a man at my elbow.

I had not seen him approach, and his sudden appearance made me start.

Table 2. Extract of the novel The Thirty-Nine Steps, by John Buchan

If beginner trainees are asked to translate this text, the linguistic

comprehension problems that might arise —such as not understanding “a man

at my elbow” or “made me start”— can be solved by looking at a general

monolingual dictionary in the source language; the definition of the wordings

will be enough for the trainee to understand their meaning. However, an

extralinguistic encyclopaedic comprehension problem such as “Langham

Place” will not be solved by looking it up in a dictionary.

After understanding these linguistic and extralinguistic elements, the same

elements might be classified as transfer, rewriting and/or pragmatic problems.

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

1.2.1. Example of using the TPT as a pre-translation task at an early learning stage

The didactic unit presented here has been designed for university beginner

translators from English into Spanish in their first year of training in

translation, either at graduate or postgraduate levels at the Faculty of

Translation and Interpreting of Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. The TPT

is used with a pre-translation approach, as part of the preparation to translate

the text.1

Table 4 contains a text analysed in class, where many possible potential

translation problems were identified. The trainees did not receive a copy of the

text with the underlined problem types. This is only done here to provide

examples of the possible translation problems of different types that can be

found in the text. These problems will vary from one trainee to another, based

on their previous knowledge, cultural background, etc. In fact, some elements

may present different problems at different stages of the translation process or

give rise to other problems for different trainees. For example, Table 3

highlights the extralinguistic rewriting problem of “100m” in Spanish, a

concept that could be confusing for trainees. Also, the combination of

numbers and letters is not common in Spanish, and the trainee may struggle

with comprehension or transfer issues, as “m” is used for meters in Spanish.

AN UNACCEPTABLE WEAPON

If the United States were to decide that landmines, like biological and

chemical weapons, are beyond the pale (CL), the world would listen

The particular horror of anti-personnel landmines (CED) is that their power

to kill and maim survives the fighting. More than 100m (RE) mines lie

undetected in more than 60 countries, tearing the limbs off perhaps 20,000

(TE) passers-by each year. New mines are laid faster than old ones can be

(CL) cleared. Next month in Geneva (CEE) governments will be trying, once

again, to rewrite the United Nations’ (CEE) feeble 16-year-old rules on these

pernicious weapons. They will once again find it difficult. An earlier meeting

ended in stalemate with some wanting the weapon to be banned, others keen

to leave matters as they are for a generation or two, many pursuing a range of

compromises. This time, however, if America (CEC)were to weigh in, (CL)

renouncing the use of mines and supporting the two dozen (RE) countries

that urge a ban, the result might be different. It could happen. The wounding

1 For a more thorough explanation of the whole didactic unit, see Orozco-Jutorán (2016).

Application of a translation problems typology

of three American (TE) servicemen (TL) in Bosnia may have helped to

concentrate American (TE) minds. But the unease goes well beyond this.

Codes used for the different translation problem types (underlined):

Comprehension:

• Linguistic (CL)

• Extralinguistic: cultural (CEC), encyclopaedic (CEE), domain-related

(CED)

• Transfer:

• Linguistic (TL)

• Extralinguistic (TE)

• Rewriting:

• Linguistic (RL)

• Extralinguistic (RE)

Table 3. Fragment of a text with translation problem types highlighted. Text

reproduced with permission of The Economist ©

The translation problems task is developed over four sessions with the

goal of identifying the translation problems in the text, classifying them

according to the TPT, and solving them using the documentation resources

available that have been learned in previous instructional units.

In session 1, trainees are introduced to the TPT (Table 1). All types of

problems and recommended strategies are thoroughly explained, allowing

room for debate to ensure trainees understand them. In session 2, trainees are

asked to detect, in the same text analysed in the previous task, which can be

seen in Table 3, five problems of different types. In session 3, trainees are

asked to find a specific strategy and a possible solution for the five problems

that have been identified. Then, trainees have one week to submit a table like

Table 4. In the table, they need to list the five problems detected, their type,

the strategy used to solve them, and a possible solution. Finally, during session

4, trainees receive their tables back with comments from the trainer and

discuss any possible questions or doubts regarding the activity, problem types,

strategies, and reliable documentation resources.

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

Source text fragment

where the problem is

Problem

type

Strategy used to

solve the problem

Solution

found

Table 4. Table to be filled out in and submitted by trainees

1.2.2. Example of using the TPT as a post-translation task at an advanced learning stage

This didactic unit (DU) is developed over 12 sessions with advanced

translation undergraduate trainees who are in their eighth semester, as a post-

translation exercise in the English-Spanish Translation Program at Pontificia

Universidad Católica de Valparaíso. The objective is to select some translation

problems, classify them according to the TPT, describe them, and finally justify

the proposed solution by explaining the strategies and resources used.

The DU begins with the translation and revision of several texts, during

four sessions. After the trainees have become familiar with the translation

process and the legal-economic subject area, they are prepared to undertake the

post-translation exercise on translation problems. In sessions 1 to 4, trainees

are introduced to the TPT (Table 1). All types of problems and recommended

strategies are explained and discussed using examples. These examples are

taken from texts translated by trainees both in previous years and the current

year, before this DU. Trainees realise that translation problems have always

been present in their previous translations, and in most cases, they have been

able to provide a suitable solution. This helps trainees to familiarise themselves

with this typology. In sessions 5 to 10, trainees receive new texts to translate

and after the revision in class, they are asked to choose at least 2 translation

problems they encountered and fill out the Classification Table (CT) shown in

Table 5. The CT includes the problematic element of the source text, type of

problem, problem description, theoretical basis for the proposed solution, and

solution implemented in the target text. This systematic approach helps

trainees gain awareness of their translation process, develop critical thinking

skills, and integrate TS metalanguage into their justifications.

Quote the whole sentence, or paragraph if necessary, and

highlight the translation problem.

Type of

problem

Classify the problem according to the TPT.

Description of

the problem

Describe the problem in terms of impediments to

conveying the meaning of the ST, obstacles to translating

Application of a translation problems typology

the author’s intentionality, challenges posed by textual and

genre characteristics or the translation draft, etc.

Theoretical

basis for the

proposed

solution

Provide support for the solution proposed by integrating

theory from translation studies with grammatical,

linguistic, or pragmatic approaches. Your writing should

include technolect, translation techniques, references to

parallel texts, definitions from monolingual/bilingual

dictionaries/encyclopaedias, databases, assessment by

domain experts, and any theoretical knowledge used or

acquired.

Quote the whole sentence, or paragraph if necessary, and

highlight where the solution to the problem is.

Table 5. CT and instructions given to trainees to fill it in

During sessions 5 to 10, 20 minutes are dedicated to discussing potential

translation issues each time a new text is introduced. Trainees have already

translated and revised the text with the trainer's guidance, so they are familiar

with the problematic elements. Initially, the trainer, together with the trainees,

completes the CT. This is done repeatedly over these 5 sessions with

immediate feedback from the trainer, until the trainees have enough

confidence to complete the table by themselves. In sessions 10-12, trainees

continue working in pairs or groups of three to complete the CT. Then they

are required to present their work to the class and the trainer offers feedback,

makes recommendations, and provides necessary corrections to meet the

requirements set up in the CT. In this way, using the TPT becomes a regular

task in the translation process.

2. STUDY DESIGN

To assess the trainees’ perception of the TPT’s usefulness, the authors

designed and conducted a survey and a qualitative questionnaire. The survey

was conducted for two consecutive years (academic years 2020-21 and 2021-22

in Spain and academic years 2021 and 2022 in Chile) for groups 1, 2, and 3.

The qualitative questionnaire was administered to group 4 in Chile in 2022, to

obtain qualitative data to complement the quantitative data collected in the

survey.

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

The survey included four questions designed to test four assumptions.

These assumptions are as follows: whether the pedagogical approach explained

in the previous sections and trainees perceive the use of the TPT as (1) helpful

to solve translation problems, (2) helpful to make fewer mistakes in the

translation tasks, (3) helpful to reflect upon their translation process, and (4)

helpful to increase their knowledge about Translation Studies. In addition to

testing these assumptions, the survey also aimed at comparing the use of the

TPT as a pre-translation task, with trainees at an early stage of the translation

learning process (groups 1 and 2), and as a post-translation task, with trainees

at an advanced stage of their translation learning process (groups 3 and 4). The

survey comprised a series of questions in a Google Form format. Trainees in

groups 1, 2, and 3 received an email containing a link to the form, allowing

them to respond to the questions anonymously. The survey conducted was a

non-interventional study and ensured anonymity, so ethical approval was not

necessary. In the email and Google form, trainees were fully informed about

the study's purpose and implications, and that their participation was

completely anonymous and voluntary. The survey consisted of four questions,

with the first four being multiple choice. These questions can be found in

Table 6. Trainees were asked to use a 5-point Likert scale to indicate their

agreement with each statement (1 = totally disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither

agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = totally agree).

Q1. Has using the TPT been helpful in solving translation problems?

Q2. Has using the TPT helped you make fewer mistakes in the translations

you did afterward?

Q3. Has using the TPT helped you reflect on your usual translation process?

Q4. Did filling in the table used in class after being introduced to the TPT

increase your knowledge about Translation Studies?

Table 6. Multiple choice questions in the survey about the use of the TPT

After answering these four questions, respondents were asked an open-

ended question: “Would you like to add any comment or suggestion regarding

the usefulness or the way of using the TPT in the translation classes?” This

extra question was designed to provide more comprehensive and contextual

feedback from respondents, and also to establish a connection between the

survey and the qualitative questionnaire, making it easier to analyse and

Application of a translation problems typology

triangulate quantitative and qualitative data. The qualitative questionnaire given

to group 4 comprised 6 open-ended questions (see Table 7).

Q1. Was it easy to understand this Translation Problem Typology which has

4 sections and 2 subsections (linguistic and extralinguistic), from the first

time you were introduced to it?

Q2. Once you understood and assimilated this typology, can you describe

how you actually use it to identify and classify a translation problem when

you find it?

Q3. Do you think it would be also useful to identify and classify translation

problems before you start translating it, instead of doing this only after you

have translated the text?

Q4. Do you think the repeated use of this typology in some classes of Legal-

Economic Translation and during the Translation Placement/internship has

helped you to access or gain theoretical knowledge of Translation Studies?

Q5. Do you consider that identifying and classifying translation problems

helps you to enhance the quality of your translations?

Q6. Do you agree with the following statement? “The use of a typology of

translation problems should always be included in the translation courses of

any translation training program” In case you agree with the statement,

please elaborate.

Table 7. The questionnaire with open-ended questions applied in Chile to group 4

This qualitative questionnaire was designed to gather information about

the trainees’ perceptions regarding (1) the effectiveness of the pedagogical

approach used to introduce and explain the TPT; (2) the application of the

TPT; (3) whether this approach should also be adopted in a pre-translation

stage, as this questionnaire was only given to trainees in group 4, who used the

TPT as a post-translation task; (4) whether the use of the TPT increases or

mobilises their knowledge about Translation Studies; (5) whether the use of the

TPT contributed to improving the quality of their translations; and (6) the

interest in introducing this pedagogical tool in translation training programs.

2.1. Participants

The different groups of trainees that make up the sample of the study were

from two different universities, one in Spain and the other in Chile, with

diverse backgrounds and contexts:

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

2.1.1. Groups 1 and 2 from Spain

The University’s Faculty of Translation and Interpreting offers Bachelor’s (BA)

and Master’s degrees (MA), including the Official Master’s degree in

Translation and Intercultural Studies. Therefore, TPT was first used with the

graduate trainees of a mandatory translation subject of the BA, called

“Introduction to Translation from B to A Language.” This subject is taken in

the first year of the BA. These trainees work from English (B language) into

Spanish (A language). In the study, this group is referred to as group 1. The

TPT was also used in group 2, which consisted of post-graduate trainees taking

a compulsory subject of the MA called “Translation Methodology.” This

subject is part of a module called “Fundamentals of Translation, Translation

Studies, and Intercultural Studies” in the MA. These trainees are from China.

In this course, the trainees are not involved in actual translation; instead, they

are introduced to the methodology of translation without working in a specific

language combination. The examples used in class are in Chinese, English and

Spanish, since they have a good command of all three languages. Therefore,

the first group consists of undergraduate, first-year Spanish university students

working with their B-A language combination, while the second group

comprises postgraduate Chinese trainees working without a specific language

combination. The two groups share a common feature: they are both in the

early stages of learning translation, so the TPT is used as a pre-translation task.

Both groups took part in the survey described in section 2 for two consecutive

years, 2021 and 2022. A total of 76 students (37 in 2021; 39 in 2022) from

group 1, and a total of 35 students (18 in 2021; 17 in 2022) from group 2.

2.1.2. Groups 3 and 4 from Chile

Undergraduate programs in Chilean universities are typically designed to be

completed in four or five years of full-time study. Currently, there are 12

universities offering translation programs across the country (Araya, 2022). The

Program at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso offers a Bachelor

of Arts in English Language and a Professional Degree in English-Spanish

Translation. The translation program requires completion of nine semesters.

The undergraduate trainees who used the TPT were in their fourth and fifth

year of university (eighth and ninth semester, respectively) and were generally

between the ages of 20 and 24. The third study group from Chile was for the

Legal-Economic Translation course in the eighth semester —in the study, this

Application of a translation problems typology

group is referred to as group 3, and they participated in the same survey that

was conducted in Spain for two consecutive years, 2021 and 2022. The fourth

study group (group 4) from Chile was enrolled in the Translation Professional

Practicum course at institutions that required translation services. In their final

semester, trainees combine real translation work in a company or institution

with academic activities. As part of these activities, they must prepare a final

report on their placements. The translation practicum report should include

the presentation of five translation problems collected from the 20,000 words

they have translated.2 Since this group was more advanced and worked more

extensively with the TPT, they were considered the best group to gather

qualitative data. A total of 24 students from group 3, and a total of 14 students

from group 4, took part in the study.

3. RESULTS

3.1. Survey results

Regarding the survey, which was sent to trainees in groups 1, 2, and 3 for two

consecutive years, a mean of 83% of the trainees answered the questions. This

total percentage is broken down as follows: Group 1: Undergraduate trainees

in Spain, using the TPT with pre-translation approach: 76%. Group 2:

Postgraduate trainees in Spain, using the TPT with pre-translation approach:

91%. Group 3: Undergraduate trainees in Chile, using the TPT with post-

translation approach: 82%.

Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4 show the survey results, comparing the answers to

each of the four multiple choice questions of the three trainee groups. For the

sake of clarity, for each of the three groups, the means of the answers obtained

in years 1 and 2 have been calculated, and this is the number that can be seen

in each figure. This system allows us to show the results for each group in only

one column and thus the answers of the three groups can be compared in a

simple chart. The datasets including all the answers to the surveys for each year

and group can be consulted online.

2 For more details about the practicum process and specifically about translation problems, see

Araya (2025).

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

Figure 1. Comparison of answers to question 1 by the three trainee groups

The answers to question 1, which was designed to see how helpful the

TPT was to solve translation problems according to the trainees’ perception,

show some similarities and slight differences between the three groups. The

average among the three groups is as follows: for option 4 (I agree), 52%;

option 5 (I totally agree), 33%; and option 3 (I neither agree nor disagree),

12%. There were no “1: I totally disagree” answers in neither of the three

groups and only 4% of the answers in group 3 were “2: I disagree.” Adding the

percentages of the answers “I agree” and “I totally agree” in each of the three

groups (89%, 91%, and 77%) suggests that most trainees found the TPT

helpful to solve translation problems.

10,95%

60,15%

28,90%

9,40%

55,25%

35,40%

3,90%

18,45%

42,85% 34,80%

0,00%

10,00%

20,00%

30,00%

40,00%

50,00%

60,00%

70,00%

12345

Q1. Has using the TPT been helpful in solving

translation problems ?

Group 1 mean Group 2 mean Group 3 mean

Application of a translation problems typology

Figure 2. Comparison of answers to question 2 by the three trainee groups

The answers to question 2, which was designed to see how helpful the

TPT was to make fewer mistakes in the translation tasks according to the

trainees’ perception, show some similarities and some differences between the

three groups. The average among the three groups is as follows: for option 4 (I

agree), 42%; option 5 (I totally agree), 42%; and option 3 (I neither agree nor

disagree), 15%. There were no answers of “1: I totally disagree” or “2: I

disagree” in neither of the three groups. Adding the percentages of the answers

“I agree” and “I totally agree” in each of the three groups (85%, 79% and

90%) suggests that most trainees found the TPT helpful or very helpful to

make fewer mistakes in the translation tasks.

14,95%

41,35%

43,75%

20,50%

44,10%

35,40%

9,80%

43,45% 46,75%

0,00%

5,00%

10,00%

15,00%

20,00%

25,00%

30,00%

35,00%

40,00%

45,00%

50,00%

12345

Q2. Has using the TPT helped you make fewer mistakes

in the translations you did afterward?

Group 1 m ean Group 2 m ean Group 3 m ean

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

Figure 3. Comparison of answers to question 3 by the three trainee groups

The responses to question 3, aimed at assessing how helpful the TPT was

for trainees to reflect on their translation process based on their perception,

reveal both similarities and differences among the three groups. The average

among the three groups is as follows: option 5 (I totally agree), 56%; option 4

(I agree), 34%; and option 3 (I neither agree nor disagree), 10%; and option 1

(I disagree), 3%. The sum of the percentages of the answers “I agree” and “I

totally agree” in each of the three groups (83%, 97%, and 90%) indicates that

most trainees found the TPT useful or very useful to reflect upon their

translation process.

Application of a translation problems typology

Figure 4. Comparison of answers to question 4 by the three trainee groups

The responses to question 4, aimed at assessing the TPT’s effectiveness in

enhancing the trainees’ understanding of Translation Studies as perceived by

them, demonstrate both similarities and differences across the three groups.

The responses to question 4, aimed at assessing the TPT’s effectiveness in

enhancing the trainees’ understanding of Translation Studies as perceived by

them, demonstrate both similarities and differences across the three groups.

The average among the three groups is as follows: option 5 (I totally agree),

49%; option 4 (I agree), 35%; and option 3 (I neither agree nor disagree), 13%;

and option 1 (I disagree), 1.6%. Finally, there were no total disagreement

answers in the three groups. The results showed that none of the three groups

disagreed completely. When we combined the percentages of “I agree” and “I

totally agree” for each group (83%, 86%, and 84%), it showed that most

trainees found the TPT helpful or very helpful to increase their knowledge

about Translation Studies. The optional open-ended question at the end of the

survey, “Would you like to add any comment or suggestion regarding the

usefulness or the way of using the TPT in the translation classes?” was

answered by 20% of the trainees. The group that provided the most answers

was group 3, the undergraduate trainees in Chile, who used the TPT with a

post-translation approach. The trainees’ feedback can be divided into two main

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

categories: 80% found the TPT useful and functional, while 20% found it

interesting and felt that its use broadened their understanding of translation.

3.2. Questionnaire results

Regarding the qualitative survey, 80% of the trainees provided more detailed

responses to the questions while 20% just answered yes or not. Trainees

emphasized the educational value of the TPT in their professional university

training, and how it helped them enhance their translation competence. Here is

a summary of the responses to the questionnaire, along with personal

assessments and suggestions:

− Q1: All trainees agreed that initially, it was difficult to differentiate among

the first three categories. However, as they were given more and more

examples and started to apply the TPT in their own translations, classifying

the problems became an easier task. Suggestion: include more examples at

the beginning.

− Q2: 90% of the trainees stated they followed the same step-by-step

process: identification, analysis, description, problem classification with the

TPT, and offering a solution.

− Q3: 90% of the trainees indicated that using the TPT would enhance the

productivity and quality of the translation process. Three trainees,

however, emphasized the fact that translation problems are easier to

identify during the translation process or during the revision.

− Q4: Except for one negative response, all the trainees agreed that using the

TTP helps them remember and think critically about translation studies

and theory. Three trainees emphasized that this pedagogical exercise helps

them defend their decisions with more evidence, better understand

theoretical concepts, and assign greater importance to TS than before.

− Q5: All trainees strongly believed that using the TPT helped them to

enhance the quality of their translations, become more aware of the

mistakes, and that the TPT not only helps to understand the translation

problems, but also provides other procedures to achieve a high-quality

translation.

− Q6: All trainees unanimously agreed that this translation approach for

analysing and resolving translation issues should be included in every

training course. The following response effectively summarizes the

trainees' feedback: “It would be beneficial not only for trainees, but also

for trainers, for they will be able to give feedback based on a practical

Application of a translation problems typology

theoretical guide of a translation problem” and because “answers like ‘it

doesn’t sound right to me’ will change to, for example, “it is a linguistic

transfer problem.”

Table 8. Summary of the questionnaire’s responses

4. DISCUSSION

The analysis of the results of the survey data yields several insights. When

combining the percentages of answers indicating total disagreement with the

four questions asked in all groups and years (which is 0%), the percentage of

answers indicating disagreement (ranging from 0% to 5%, with a mean of

1.6%), and the percentage of “neither agree nor disagree” (ranging from 0% to

20%, with a mean of 12%), the result is that only a mean of 13.6% of trainees

disagree or are not sure whether the TPT is helpful for solving translation

problems, making fewer mistakes in the translation tasks, reflecting upon their

translation process, and increasing their knowledge about Translation Studies.

This is confirmed by the combined percentages of responses showing

complete agreement with the four questions asked across all groups and years

—ranging from 29% to 61% with an average of 45%— as well as partial

agreement —ranging from 22% to 60% with an average of 41%—. These

combined percentages show that, on average, 86% of trainees agree or strongly

agree that the TPT is helpful for solving translation problems, reducing errors

in translation tasks, reflecting on their translation process, and increasing their

knowledge of Translation Studies. This data is further supported by the

positive responses to the fifth question of the survey, indicating the usefulness

and interest in the TPT. Additionally, the positive feedback received from the

qualitative questionnaire provides different insights into the usefulness of the

TPT. This leads to the conclusion that the TPT is a valuable pedagogical tool

for the translation class.

Secondly, when examining the individual percentages of the responses to

each multiple-choice question in the survey, some interesting variations in the

trainees’ views can observed regarding the effectiveness of the TPT for the

four elements that were investigated: solving translation problems, making

fewer mistakes in the translation tasks, reflecting upon their translation

process, and increasing their knowledge about Translation Studies. The most

noticeable difference is that there is just one question for which there are no

Mariana Orozco-Jutorán, Cristián Araya Medel

conflicting or completely conflicting answers in any of the groups or years; that

question is question 2, which is about the connection between using TPT and

making fewer mistakes in translation tasks. This suggests that the trainees

perceive this as one of the most valuable features of the TPT, whether used as

a pre-translation task or a post-translation task. This suggestion is reinforced

by the answers to the fifth question of the qualitative questionnaire (“Do you

consider that identifying and classifying the translation problems helps you to

enhance the quality of your translations?”), where all trainees responded that it

did help improve the quality of their translations: some of them mentioned

specifically that it helped them make fewer mistakes.

From a pedagogical perspective, this prompts further research into the

connection between addressing translation problems in class and the trainees’

confidence in making fewer mistakes in their translations. An interesting idea

could be to investigate whether this sense of security leads to making fewer

mistakes, which could be confirmed through a repeated measurement study,

following the works of Haro Soler and Kiraly (2019), for example. Another

important difference to be noted is that the third question of the survey

received the most “totally agree” responses from all three groups in all years.

This was the question regarding the helpfulness of the TPT for reflecting upon

their translation process. The percentages of total agreement were 61% in

group 1, 60% in group 2 and 47% in group 3. This implies that this would also

be one of the most valuable features of the TPT based on the trainees’

perception, with some interesting variances when the TPT is used as a pre-

translation task or a post-translation task. In the responses from groups 1 and

2, where the TPT was used as a pre-translation task, the percentage of “totally

agree” was the highest for all four questions. In contrast, in the responses from

group 3, where the TPT was used as a post-translation task, the most notable

“totally agree” percentage was for question 4 (related to the increase of their

knowledge about Translation Studies), which received 56% of responses, i.e.

this was seven points higher than this group's responses to question 3. This

makes sense, as the trainees of group 3 were advanced translation trainees and

thus were able to incorporate the use of the TPT in their broader experience

and perspective of translation. The qualitative questionnaire responses from

group 4, consisting of advanced trainees, consistently reinforced the idea that

the TPT was helpful. They mentioned that it helped them reflect on the

translation process and either increase their knowledge about translation or at

least recall what they already knew.

Application of a translation problems typology

CONCLUSIONS

Concerning the utility of the TPT in addressing translation problems, the

results indicate that trainees’ perceptions differ based on whether the TPT is

used as a pre- or post-translation task. Although there were no instances of

“total disagreement” in any group or year, it is interesting to note that there

were no “disagreement” answers at all in groups 1 and 2, while in group 3

there was a 4% disagreement rate. This suggests that using the TPT as a pre-

translation task (groups 1 and 2) leads to the trainees’ perception that it helps

to solve problems more than when the TPT is used as a post-translation task

(group 3). This makes sense because in the latter case, the translation has

already been completed and the problems have already been solved, regardless

of how well they were solved. These comparative results suggest that the pre-

translation approach is more useful as a practice-oriented tool for problem-

solving, while the post-translation approach is more beneficial as a reflection-

oriented tool. This could help trainers who are deciding whether to use the

TPT as a pre- or post-translation task in class.

In conclusion, we aim to contribute to translation training by introducing

a pedagogical tool, the TPT, which can be used with either a pre-translation or

a post-translation approach. We believe this tool can help trainees identify and

solve translation problems, and enable them to reflect on their translation

process, thereby providing a theoretical foundation for the decision-making

process with and helping them to make fewer mistakes in their subsequent

translation assignments. We also believe that it can be easily used in any

cultural and linguistic context, as well as in undergraduate and postgraduate

programs. It would be of great benefit if other researchers used the TPT and

provided more data to be added to the one gathered in the study presented in

this article.

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