Ucoarte. Revista de Teoría e Historia del Arte, 14, 2025, pp. 206-230, ISSN: 2255-1905
FEMINISING THE DEMON: DĪV ICONOGRAPHY,
GENDER, AND SECULARISING DISCOURSES IN
QAJAR VISUAL CULTURE (C. 1789–1925)
NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI
Handicrafts Department, Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences,
Shahrekord University (Iran)
Fecha de recepción: 30/09/2024
Fecha de aceptación: 13/11/2025
Abstract
This study examines the feminisation of dīv figures in Qajar visual culture (c. 1789 –
1925) and its relation to gendered representations and secularising discourses.
Historically, dīvs were perceived as fearsome supernatural beings symbolising the
dangers of nature, while women were depicted according to ideals of beauty and
passivity. The central research question is: Which visual features of dīvs changed from
the pre-Qajar to the Qajar period, and how are these changes reflected across different
media and audiences? The aim is to explore how these visual transformations mirror
broader social and gender dynamics and to analyse the relationship between dīv
iconography and the evolving role of women in society. The study employs a
comparative visual analysis and case study methodology. A corpus of manuscript
illustrations, tiles, lacquer works, and Qajar prints was selected, and the visual features
of dīvs (form, attire, posture, and behaviour) were coded using a systematic analytical
framework. This approach allows for the identification of feminisation patterns in dīvs
and their connection to the demythologisation of nature and the secularisation of
women’s social roles. The findings indicate that dīvs, as embodiments of the dangers of
nature, and women, as symbols of beauty and tenderness, became fused in the Qajar
period, resulting in dīvs assuming gentler and distinctly feminine forms. These visual
transformations reflect broader cultural shifts and the interplay between iconography,
gender, and social change.
Keywords
Qajar, Dīv, Gender, Iconography, Feminisation, Visual Culture
Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)
FEMINIZAR AL DEMONIO: ICONOGRAFÍA DEL DĪV, GÉNERO Y
DISCURSOS SECULARIZADORES EN LA CULTURA VISUAL KAYAR
(C. 1789–1925)
Resumen
Este estudio examina la feminización de las figuras dīv en la cultura visual kayar (c.
1789–1925) y su relación con las representaciones de género y los discursos
secularizadores. Históricamente, los dīvs eran percibidos como seres sobrenaturales
temibles que simbolizaban los peligros de la naturaleza, mientras que las mujeres eran
representadas según ideales de belleza y pasividad. La pregunta central de la
investigación es: ¿Qué rasgos visuales de los dīvs cambiaron del período pre-kayar al
kayar y cómo se reflejan estos cambios en distintos medios y audiencias? El objetivo
es explorar de qué manera estas transformaciones visuales reflejan dinámicas sociales
y de género más amplias, así como examinar la relación entre la iconografía del dīv y
el papel cambiante de las mujeres en la sociedad.
El estudio emplea un análisis visual comparativo y una metodología de estudio de
caso. Se seleccionó un corpus de ilustraciones manuscritas, azulejos, obras lacadas y
estampas kayar, y se codificaron los rasgos visuales de los dīvs (morfología,
indumentaria, postura y comportamiento) mediante un marco analítico sistemático.
Este enfoque permite identificar patrones de feminización en los dīvs y su conexión
con la desmitologización de la naturaleza y la secularización de los roles sociales de las
mujeres. Los resultados indican que, durante el período kayar, los dīvs -tradicionalmente
asociados con los peligros de la naturaleza- y las mujeres -símbolos de belleza y
ternura- se fusionaron visualmente, dando lugar a dīvs con rasgos más suaves y
marcadamente femeninos. Estas transformaciones iconográficas que surgen, fruto de
la interacción entre imagen, género y diversas transformaciones sociales, se convierten
en el reflejo de unos cambios culturales de gran relevancia.
Palabras clave
Qajar, Dīv, Gender, Iconografía, Feminización, Cultura visual
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Introduction
The figure of the dīv is one of the most enduring motifs in the visual traditions of Iran.
From ancient Iranian mythology to epic narratives, religious imagery, and the applied arts,
the dīv has consistently functioned as a symbolic marker of evil, chaos, the boundaries of
human identity, and the moral order of society. Yet in the Qajar period (1789-1925), this
motif underwent profound transformations. These changes were not limited to visual form;
they reshaped the semantic and cultural functions of the dīv. In various media -including
architectural tiles, lacquer paintings, lithographs, and manuscript illustrations- the dīv was
not only reimagined but was frequently “softened,” “beautified,” or even “feminised,” a
phenomenon that appears paradoxical when viewed against its long-standing role as an
embodiment of disorder and monstrosity.
This visual and conceptual shift raises a fundamental question: why did the dīv in the
Qajar era evolve from a fierce and threatening creature into a figure with softer, beautified,
and sometimes gender-ambiguous features? Investigating this question provides insight into
the mechanisms of representation in Qajar visual culture and enables us to trace the interplay
between image, power, gender, and aesthetic discourse in this period. In this sense, the dīv
serves as a mediating motif through which the tensions between tradition and modernity,
religious morality and courtly aesthetics, and the redefinition of the body in Qajar art can be
examined.
Despite the significance of this topic, previous scholarship has focused primarily on the
role of the dīv in mythological and epic traditions, paying far less attention to the
transformation of this figure within the dīverse visual media of the Qajar era. Moreover, the
relationship between gender codes, the aesthetics of the body, and the representation of evil
in Qajar imagery has remained largely unexplored. Seeking to address this gap, the present
study examines the visual transformation of the dīv in Qajar art and analyses the gendered
and bodily signifiers embedded in these representations.
Accordingly, this article addresses three central research questions:
1. How does the motif of the dīv change in appearance, posture, bodily form, and
symbolic attributes across Qajar artworks?
2. How do these transformations manifest differently across media, tiles, lithographs,
lacquer objects, and manuscript paintings?
3. In what ways does the “softening” and feminisation of the dīv reflect broader
discourses of gender, the body, and aesthetics in Qajar culture?
The study hypothesises that the transformation of the dīv in Qajar art was not merely
decorative or imitative, but a visual response to shifting socio-cultural dynamics and
emerging discourses on the body, gender, and the representation of power. In this context,
features such as a beautified face, softened physique, feminine contours, and gentle gestures
may be interpreted as signs of demythologisation and the secularisation of the embodiment
of evil.
Methodologically, the study adopts an interdisciplinary approach that integrates visual
analysis with anthropological theories of art, gender studies, and iconographic/iconological
methods. The article proceeds by outlining the conceptual framework and defining key
terms, followed by a review of relevant scholarship and a detailed explanation of the corpus
and coding methodology. The analytical section presents a comparative study of images
across four artistic media, supplemented by three focused case studies that demonstrate
Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)
209
specific patterns of gendered transformation. The article concludes with a discussion of the
cultural implications of these findings within the broader context of Qajar visuality.
Research Methodology
This study is based on a comparative visual analysis and case study approach. Its aim is to
examine the transformation of dīvs and their feminization in Qajar-era visual culture, and to
explore the relationship between these representations and social and gender changes. A
selected corpus of works -including manuscripts, tilework, lacquerware, and Qajar prints-
was analyzed.
The visual features of dīvs (form, posture, attire, and behavior) were systematically coded
using an analytical framework to identify patterns of gendered transformation and
feminization. This approach allows for an examination of the relationship between visual
representations, cultural and social transformations, and the changing roles of women in
society. A comparative analysis of these works across different periods further clarifies the
process of demythologizing nature and the secularization of women’s roles.
The Relationship of Dīvs, Women, and Gender in Qajar Art and Illustration
The Qajar period marked the final stage of Iranians’ struggle with nature. Artists of the
era found depictions of hunting grounds a suitable platform for artistic expression. Human
triumph over nature reduced the mythical elements associated with hunting and dīvs, leading
to a rational and critical representation of nature (Garrard A, 2012). Nature, once considered
sacred in the rituals of Mithra, Zoroastrianism, and Islam, gradually lost its mystique, while
modern science, through accurate maps and records, enabled the utilization of natural
resources. Consequently, sites previously endowed with mythic fame, such as valleys, caves,
and wells -once believed to house supernatural beings like dīvs and jinns- lost much of their
aura and no longer captivated the imagination.
Qajar society was intensely religious. However, some intellectuals, influenced by Western
scholarship and scientific approaches to nature, gradually desacralized supernatural beings
and approached them with critical reasoning (Eliade, 1997; Ginzburg, 1989). This widespread
belief encouraged human defiance against imaginary supernatural entities. Artists depicted
demonic beings as powerless and devoid of sinister traits, portraying them as passive and
ineffectual.
During the Qajar period, women were confined to restricted spaces, primarily due to
religious beliefs and the influence of centuries-old customs and rituals. Recent studies
indicate that these limitations applied not only to ordinary women but also to elite women,
and Qajar art reflected these conditions (Najmabadi, 2005; Afary, 2009).
The role of women in the representation of dīvs is particularly notable. Dīvs, as symbols
of nature’s dangers, and women, as embodiments of beauty and gentleness, were combined
in Qajar illustrations, with dīvs assuming more feminine and gentle forms. This
transformation demonstrates the demythologization of nature and the secularization of
women’s social roles, aligning with broader social and cultural changes (Garrard A, 2012;
Kirmizis A, 2014).
Comparative studies with European illustrations of the same period reveal that the
feminization of demonic entities in Iran paralleled European representations, both
influenced by cultural and scientific developments (Warner, 1994; Russell, 1981).
Nahid Jafari Dehkordi
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1. Dīvs as Cultural and Intellectual Symbols
This section explores how natural forces are symbolically represented through dīvs and
traces the historical transformations of these entities.
A) Dīvs in Prehistoric Beliefs
Dīvs were among the first entities sanctified and worshipped by Aryans. The synonymity
of terms referring to dīvs and concepts such as God, day, and light indicates that these beliefs
were present before their dispersion (Beekes, 2010). Supernatural beings, including dīvs,
embodied the frightening and mysterious aspects of nature, whereas women represented its
gentler, fertile, and nurturing qualities.
B) Dīvs in Early Religious Traditions
During the emergence of global religions, sacred beings were often regarded as fearsome
entities capable of causing harm. The separation of negative traits from supreme divine
powers contributed to the development of demonology and the belief in devils (Brandon,
1970). In Iranian culture, dīvs initially appeared as deities, later as malevolent beings defeated
by heroes, and ultimately as peripheral, powerless figures represented in feminine forms.
C) Dīvs in Qajar-Era Art
The Qajar era represented a critical historical phase for Iranian society, confronting
foreign cultural influences, technological backwardness, and outdated lifestyles. As humans
increasingly gained control over nature through technology and firearms, previously feared
dīvs were depicted in artworks as weakened, benign, and feminine (Garrard, 2012; Kirmizis
A, 2014). This reflects the broader intellectual and cultural demythologization of nature.
2. Women, Gender, and the Feminization of Dīvs in Qajar Illustrations
The representation of women in relation to dīvs is particularly notable. Dīvs, as symbols
of nature’s dangers, and women, as embodiments of beauty and gentleness, were fused in
Qajar illustrations, with dīvs adopting more feminine and gentle characteristics. This
transformation reflects the secularization of women’s social roles and mirrors broader
cultural changes (Garrard B, 2012; Kirmizis B, 2014).
Comparative studies with European illustrations of the same period show that the
feminization of demonic entities in Iran paralleled European developments, both influenced
by scientific and cultural transformations (Warner, 1994; Russell, 1981).
Artworks from this period depict once-powerful and frightening entities as passive and
ineffectual, while women’s representations highlight both historical social restrictions and
evolving notions of femininity. These shifts illustrate the interplay between iconography,
gender, and societal change, demonstrating the gradual demythologization of supernatural
beings and the secularization of female roles.
Artistic Depictions of Dīvs in the Pre-Qajar Period
In pre-Qajar artwork, dīvs were portrayed as formidable entities, distinguished primarily
by their human-like forms. Artists frequently rendered them with fearsome faces, animalistic
heads, horns and tails reminiscent of herbivores, and outfitted with armbands, leg bindings,
saddles, and other ornamental elements (see Figures 1-10). Figure 1 the royal court of
Jamshid is depicted; Jamshid sits on a magnificent golden throne, wearing a tall crown and
an exquisite blue robe. He appears calm and dignified in the scene, with several courtiers
standing on either side of him, reflecting the respect, grandeur, and order of his court.
However, the most striking part of the image is the two powerful demons carrying Jamshid’s
Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)
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throne, each with completely different and exaggerated features: The demon on the left has
a muscular body, an animal -like face with horns, and large, powerful claws- claws that
resemble the talons of birds of prey. Its posture suggests that it is struggling under the weight
of the throne. The demon on the right has a slender body with a thin tail, and its legs, instead
of being human, resemble the hooves of a four-legged animal. These hooves emphasize its
supernatural strength and nature, creating a stark contrast with its semi-human body. The
presence of these two differently-featured demons -one with bird-like claws and the other
with four-legged hooves- not only demonstrates Jamshid’s extraordinary power but also
highlights the marvelous and mythological structure of his world.
Analysis of Pre-Qajar Dīv Imagery in Persian Art
In pre-Qajar Persian art, dīvs were consistently portrayed as powerful and often terrifying
entities, reflecting both the human confrontation with nature and the moral lessons
embedded in epic literature. The exaggerated physical features -such as monstrous faces,
talon-like hands, horns, and tails- emphasized their otherworldly threat while drawing
parallels to the animalistic aspects of human behavior (Garrard B, 2012).
Moreover, the interaction between dīvs and heroes, such as Rostam in the Shahnameh,
symbolically represented the struggle between order and chaos, human courage and nature’s
Fig. 1. Jamshid's throne borne by Dīvs, Shahnameh,
1435–1440 AD, Timurid, Shiraz, No MS_22_1948,
f.11v. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper, 17.5 ×
24.5 cm. Fitzwilliam Museum. (URL1)
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unpredictability. These confrontations were visually dramatized, with dīvs frequently
depicted wielding weapons, dominating scenes, or physically challenging heroes, which
intensified the narrative tension and moral instruction (see Figures 2-8).
Interestingly, the overt male characteristics of many dīvs, including explicit genital
depiction, suggest a gendered dimension in Persian demonology, linking masculinity to
strength, aggression, and danger. This reflects the cultural tendency to assign human traits,
including social and moral values, to supernatural entities (Beekes, 2010; Russell, 1981).
The detailed accoutrements, such as saddles, armbands, and bindings, further humanized
these beings, creating a hybrid imagery that straddled the natural and the supernatural. This
indicates a sophisticated visual language, where artists were not merely illustrating stories but
encoding ethical, social, and philosophical commentary through iconography (Kirmizis,
2014).
In summary, pre-Qajar dīv illustrations were not only artistic expressions but also tools
for moral and cultural education. They mediated societal values, human-nature relationships,
and gendered perceptions, providing insight into the intellectual and aesthetic priorities of
the time.
Dīvs were sometimes illustrated in painting as wielding a mace, a detail especially
prominent in depictions of battle scenes (see Figures 2 and 3).
Fig. 2. Battle of Imam Ali with Subterranean Dīvs,
Khaarannameh, 1476–1477 AD, Timurid, Shiraz, No.
7075, f.71. Watercolor, 27.5 × 38.3 cm, artist: Farhad.
Golestan Palace Museum.
Fig. 3. Battle of Tahmuras with Dīvs, Shahnameh
Tahmasbi, 1525 AD, No. 1970.301.3, f.23v.
Watercolor, 18.6 × 28.3 cm, artist: Sultan
Muhammad, Tabriz. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
(URL2).
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In Figure 2, from the Khaarannameh manuscript (1476–1477 AD), dīvs are depicted
fighting Imam Ali. These dīvs wield maces and dominate the battle scene with strength and
ferocity. Their depiction not only conveys violence and menace but also highlights the
contrast between human courage and capability and supernatural powers.
In Figure 3, Tahmuras is depicted combating dīvs in a dynamic battle scene. The dīvs are
vividly portrayed with exaggerated, supernatural features, wielding weapons and displaying
ferocity, while Tahmuras, mounted on his horse, confronts them with courage and strategic
prowess. The composition emphasizes the tension between human heroism and chaotic
supernatural forces, a recurring theme in the Shahnameh visual tradition.
The physical anatomy of dīvs mirrored that of heroes; however, dīvs were made to look
more robust and formidable, emphasising the hero's inner struggle against their own negative
and animalistic qualities (Figures 4 to 6).
In Figure 4, the dīv is depicted with an anatomy that closely mirrors that of the hero, yet
it is intentionally exaggerated to appear more powerful, animalistic, and fearsome. The
elongated limbs, pronounced musculature, horns, stark white face, and claw-like hands
transform the figure into a hybrid creature situated between human and beast. Despite being
shown in a fallen and defeated position, the dīv’s body remains visually strong and robust,
emphasizing the formidable nature of the adversary the hero must confront. This visual
strategy -common throughout the Persian miniature tradition- portrays the dīv as physically
comparable to the hero, yet corrupted, chaotic, and set against the natural order.
Such anatomical resemblance underscores that the battle is not merely an external
confrontation but a symbolic encounter with the hero’s own internal forces: the darker,
instinctual, and animalistic aspects of the self. The swirling rocks, darkened environment,
Fig. 4. Rustam Slays the White
Div, Shahnameh, ca. 1460, Shiraz. Ink,
opaque watercolor, and gold leaf on
paper, 26.5 × 18.1 cm, Folio: 28v,
University of Michigan Museum of
Art, No. 1963/1.45. (URL3).
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and disturbed chromatic field surrounding the dīv further enhance its liminal and destabilized
nature, positioning it between the realm of the natural world and the domain of disorder.
Thus, in Figure 4, the dīv functions not simply as a physical foe but as the embodied
representation of the negative dimensions of the human psyche-elements that must be
subdued for the restoration of balance and moral clarity.
In this illustration (Figure 5), the dīv is once again depicted with a body that closely
parallels the anatomy of the hero -muscular, heavy, and unmistakably human- yet augmented
with animalistic features that push it beyond the realm of humanity and into the domain of
chaos and antinature. The powerful limbs, broad shoulders, aggressive gesture of the hands,
and the mask-like white face, together with the long pointed horns, transform the dīv into a
hybrid being, part human and part beast. This structural resemblance between the hero and
the dīv follows a visual logic well established in Shāhnāmeh illustration: the dīv serves as a
mirror figure, embodying not only an external adversary but also the darker, instinctual, and
uncontrolled forces within the hero himself.
Here, the dīv is shown collapsed within the darkness of a cave, surrounded by jagged
purple-blue rocks rendered with undulating, unnatural outlines. This setting situates the dīv
on the threshold between the natural world and the realm of the subconscious. The deep
blackness of the cave, enveloping and encroaching upon the dīv’s body, symbolizes the
psychological depths the hero must confront. Meanwhile, the sharply contrasting and
anxiety-laden colors of the rocks -from violet to orange- heighten the sense of internal
disturbance and emphasize the dīv’s unstable and chaotic nature.
Fig. 5. Rustam Slays the White Div, Shahnameh,
1500–1515 AD, Supplément Persan 1122, Folio 62v.
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper, 34.6 × 27
cm. Bibliothèque nationale de France. (URL4).
Fig. 6. Rustam Slays the White Div, Shāhnāmeh, 1542
AD, ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper, Folio
67v , Ryl Pers 932, 20.6 × 10.8 cm. Shiraz, The John
Rylands Library, University of Manchester (URL5).
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Although the creature appears to be defeated, its body remains visually strong and
resistant, signaling that only a hero who has mastered his own anger and animal impulses can
truly overcome it. This simultaneously defeated yet forceful posture transforms the dīv from
a mere monster into an idea: a concentrated embodiment of darkness that can only be
subdued through moral and spiritual elevation.
On the right side of the composition, the hero stands apart as an observer; the physical
distance between him and the fallen dīv accentuates the symbolic division between “order”
and “chaos,” “reason” and “instinct.” The presence of the horse partially hidden behind the
rocks alludes to the hero’s return to the bright, human world after this descent into darkness.
Thus, the illustration represents not only a scene of combat but also the mythic struggle
between the human and the unseen forces within him. In Figure 5, the dīv emerges as a being
equal to the hero in physical strength and yet ontologically part of him -a shadow- self that
must be subdued for the hero to attain wisdom and inner clarity.
In Figure 6, a terrifying dīv can also be observed, which, in addition to its robust body,
has a frightening face. Its crenellated horns and facial features, such as wide eyes, an open
mouth, and a long, unusual nose, distinguish it from a hero like Rostam.
Divs in pre-Qajar illustrations were often shown as distinctly male, with genitalia
sometimes portrayed explicitly (Figures 7-9).
This visual emphasis conveyed their violent and threatening nature. Some cultural
expressions, such as the Persian term narreh-ghoul -used to refer to heavyset young men- may
have been inspired by these portrayals.
Fig. 7. Rostam Slays Arzhang dīv, Shahnameh Tahmasbi, 1522 AD, No. 2019714668, 19×21 cm,
watercolor, Tabriz,122v, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art (URL6).
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Fig. 8. Rostam Slays Arzhang dīv, Shahnameh, 1628 AD, No. Additional 27258, 13×22.6 cm,
watercolor, Isfahan,92r, The British Library (URL7).
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Introduction to the Visual Analysis of Qajar Era Artworks
The Qajar era witnessed a distinct transformation in artistic representation, particularly in
the portrayal of heroes and supernatural beings such as dīvs. These visual narratives not only
reflect aesthetic trends but also encode social and cultural perceptions of gender, power, and
morality. In this section, we examine a series of artworks from the period, highlighting the
metamorphosis of artistic motifs and the nuanced depiction of dīvs in contrast to heroic
figures. Each illustration or artifact will be analyzed in terms of morphology, behavior, attire,
and symbolic significance, offering insights into the evolving visual language of Qajar art.
Metamorphosis of Artistic Motifs in the Qajar Era: Thematic and Technical
Approach
During the Qajar era, Iranian art underwent profound transformations in both content
and technique. To better understand these changes, this study focuses on two main axes:
thematic differentiation and artistic techniques.
From a thematic perspective, artworks of this period show significant changes in the
depiction of male and female characters, particularly supernatural beings such as dīvs and
epic heroes like Rostam and Fath Ali Shah. Examining recurring motifs allows us to trace
patterns in the reinterpretation of these figures, including changes in morphology, attire, and
behavior, which reflect the social attitudes of the time.
From a technical perspective, Qajar artists employed a wide range of media, including
lithography, miniature, lacquer painting, tilework, and metal engraving. Each medium not
only shapes the visual style of the work but also influences the way motifs are presented,
whether in manuscripts, decorative panels, or architectural spaces.
In this study, we first categorize the artworks thematically to make the changes in subjects
and narrative choices clearly visible. In subsequent sections, a technical analysis of the works
is provided to elucidate the relationship between medium, technique, and the transformation
of style and motif representation.
By structuring the research around these two axes -theme and technique- our aim is to
provide a coherent framework for analyzing Qajar art before delving into detailed case
studies.
Battle of the Hero and the Dīv
In Figure 10 the dīv is depicted completely nude, corpulent, and plump. Its prominent
feminine breasts and thick thighs create a striking contrast with Rostam’s muscular and
heroic physique. The dīv’s skin tone matches that of Rostam, and its horns and semi-animal
face emphasize its supernatural and non-human characteristics.
The dīv’s posture, lying on the ground, renders it vulnerable and powerless, showing no
signs of resistance or aggression. This reflects the Qajar-era artistic tendency to soften and
feminize dīvs.
The dīv is adorned with a short yellow skirt with black outlining, which accentuates its
semi-nude body and feminine curves. This image transforms the dīv from a menacing and
terrifying entity into a vulnerable, soft, and feminine figure, and the contrast between hero
and dīv mirrors the broader social and gendered shifts in Qajar society.
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In Figure 11, the hero is depicted without a mustache and with softer features compared
to classical representations. The hero and the dīv are approximately the same size. The dīv
has a spotted body and an animal-like face, yet wears a very short skirt and has a narrow
waist. Despite being struck by the hero’s sword, the dīv remains indifferent. This image
exemplifies the Qajar-era trend of “softening” and “feminising” dīvs, reducing their
threatening and violent traits while emphasizing delicate and feminine characteristics.
Fig. 10. Battle of Rostam and the Dīv, Shahnameh, 1924 AD. Lithograph, 20.7 ×
34.9 cm, No. S1986.392. National Museum of Asian Art. (URL9)
Fig. 11. Slaying of a dīv by a folk hero, the Qajar era,
lithograph (Zolfaghari, Heydari, 2012: 1981).
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In Figure 12, the dīv is depicted with white, spotted skin, pendulous breasts, plump thighs,
and round eyes. The golden eyebrows and eyelids with red outlines give it a feminine yet
non-human appearance. Monstrous features such as protruding long teeth, horns, drooping
ears, and a broad nose maintain its presence within the realm of mythical creatures. The short
skirt and jewelry, including necklace, anklets, and armlets, closely resemble the attire of Qajar
women, while the emphasis on body form highlights the period’s gendered aesthetics. The
dīv’s slender lower legs contrasted with its plump thighs direct visual focus to sexualized and
dominant aspects. Its direct gaze toward the viewer creates an engaging yet threatening
presence. The hero, wearing a tiger-skin garment and holding a dagger, has grabbed one of
the dīv’s horns and is targeting its body. The dīv is shown kneeling on the ground.
This figure exemplifies the “feminisation” of dīvs in Qajar-era art. Despite the monstrous
features, the body form, short skirt, and jewelry reinforce feminine traits, simultaneously
reducing the dīv’s natural aggression and reflecting social representations of women in Qajar
society. The kneeling posture and lack of active resistance against the hero emphasize the
transformation of traditional supernatural roles and illustrate human dominance over nature.
This combination clearly demonstrates the interplay of gender, power, and aesthetics in Qajar
visual culture.
In Figure 13, the dīv stands fully nude with human-colored skin. Its arms and legs are
human, although the toenails are slightly elongated. The head is slightly oversized, and the
breasts retain a feminine form. The thighs are plump and the arms strong, creating a blend
of power and femininity. The dīv wears a pleated red skirt and armlets. The scene is set in a
watery environment filled with fish, adding a fantastical and surreal dimension. Horns,
Fig. 12. Slaying of a dīv by a folk hero, the
Qajar era, lithograph (Zolfaghari, Heydari,
1393: 1981).
Fig. 13. Slaying of a dīv by a folk hero, the Qajar
era, lithograph (Zolfaghari, Heydari, 1393: 1981).
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220
drooping ears, and round eyes reinforce the creature’s monstrous identity while
simultaneously highlighting its feminine features.
The dīv holds a rectangular panel in its hands, representing Akvān Dīv, upon which
Rostam lies. This posture demonstrates the dīv’s control over the captured figure, while its
feminine attributes, including the pleated skirt, soft body contours, and curvaceous thighs,
slightly temper its menace and impart an aesthetic quality.
This figure exemplifies the Qajar-era tendency to merge gendered and monstrous features
in the depiction of dīvs. Although the dīv displays supernatural power by restraining Akvān
Dīv, its feminine features -pleated skirt, breasts, plump thighs, and softened bodily lines-
reflect the aesthetic sensibilities and social nuances of the period. The combination of these
elements illustrates the interplay between heroism, myth, and the feminisation of fearsome
creatures in Qajar visual culture.
In Figure 14, both Rostam and the White Dīv are depicted standing and engaged in
combat. The Dīv possesses a human-like body with white skin, arms and legs resembling
those of a human, and a spotted torso. Its feminine breasts, full thighs, and narrow waist,
along with the short feathered skirt, create a feminine appearance while retaining monstrous
characteristics. The presence of horns, ears, and a dragon-like tail highlights the creature’s
mythological nature. The elongated face, almond-shaped eyes with neatly arranged long
lashes, and arched eyebrows convey a feminine yet non-human aspect. Rostam, holding a
sword and positioned dominantly, confronts the Dīv. The background, featuring natural and
architectural elements, enhances the visual composition and the narrative of the battle.
This figure exemplifies the “feminisation” of Dīvs in Qajar-era art. The body form, short
skirt, and facial details echo Qajar female aesthetics, while the horns, tail, and other fantastical
elements underscore the Dīv’s supernatural identity. The standing posture and active
engagement of the Dīv with the hero indicate that the level of interaction and power of
supernatural beings relative to humans varies depending on the narrative. This representation
emphasizes the interplay between gender, power, and aesthetics in Qajar visual culture.
Fig. 14. Battle of Rostam and the White Dīv, bathhouse in Afifabad Garden,
Shiraz, mid-14th century AH, 420×380 cm, seven-colour tile, artist
Mousazadeh (Seif, 1997: 163).
Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)
221
The depiction of Fath Ali Shah in Qajar painting follows the prevalent pattern of “royal
aesthetics,” emphasizing a lean figure, narrow waist, delicate hands, and a refined facial
appearance. Scholars of Qajar art have noted that the king’s body was intentionally idealized
according to the aesthetic standards of the time, in which a slender, graceful figure and soft
facial lines signified both “royal elegance” and “moral authority” (Diba 1998; Babaie 2008).
This idealization continues in battle scenes as well. In two lacquer works depicting Fath
Ali Shah’s battles with dīvs (Figures 15 and 16), the king is shown with the same elongated,
refined body, standing serenely against the dīvs. Unlike earlier visual traditions in which
combat with demons involved exaggerated physicality and violence, here the king’s body
shows no sign of bulk, aggression, or strain; instead, he appears as in a courtly portrait, even
within the battlefield context.
In contrast, the dīvs are rendered with human-colored skin, very full thighs, narrow waists,
feminine breasts, and short, pleated skirts. Their monstrous elements -such as horns,
elongated ears, rounded eyes, and humorous facial expressions- combined with adornments
like bell necklaces, create a hybrid effect of feminized and comically neutralized bodies
(Grube 1966; Diba 1998). This duality transforms the dīvs from symbols of chaos and
violence into lissome, seductive, and partially neutralized figures.
As some scholars have pointed out, if the dīv motifs were removed, it would be difficult
for a contemporary Qajar viewer to distinguish between a “king actively dispelling evil” and
an “elegantly dressed young aristocrat”; the king’s body and that of the mythical hero are
constructed according to a shared aesthetic logic (Babaie 2008: 146). Consequently, the
mythic violence of the scene is tempered through “bodily refinement” and a “decorative
logic,” reflecting a broader visual aesthetic in Qajar art.
Dīv in Court Scenes
In Figure 17 Solomon is depicted at the center of the composition as a young and
handsome man seated on a luxurious throne. His radiant crown, fiery halo, and red attire
signify his prophetic and royal status, reflecting both spiritual and political authority.
Surrounding him are courtiers, women, animals, and supernatural beings, arranged
symmetrically to reinforce visual harmony and the central hierarchy.
Fig. 15. Battle of Fath Ali Shah and the Dīv, Qajar
era, no. 582784i, 35×42 cm, lacquer, Wellcome
Collection (URL12).
Fig. 16. Battle Battle of Fath Ali Shah and the Dīv, Qajar
era, no. 582819i, 43×62 cm, lacquer, Wellcome Collection
(URL13).
Nahid Jafari Dehkordi
222
In the foreground, two dīvs are present. The first, white-skinned and spotted like a human
body, wears a short red skirt, has full thighs, a narrow waist, and prominent breasts. This dīv
also features horns, a beard, a tail, and holds a mace, while wearing a necklace, armbands,
and ankle bands. Its hands and feet are fully human. The second dīv, dark green in color,
wears a lighter skirt and lacks a mace, but otherwise shares similar features with the first.
Both figures have large, round eyes and fiery eyebrows.
These figures exemplify a Qajar visual strategy that combines human and monstrous
forms, portraying Solomon’s control over supernatural beings. Human and feminine features
-such as full thighs, narrow waists, and pronounced breasts- illustrate the process of the
feminization of mythological creatures, whereby the terrifying aspects of dīvs are tempered
through aestheticized beauty and sensuality. This visual choice mediates the tension between
earthly and supernatural power, reflecting the interplay of gender, beauty, and authority in
Qajar art.
Thus, the depiction of Solomon not only asserts his authority but also highlights how
gendered bodies and aesthetic norms were represented in Qajar visual culture. The
humanization and feminized features of the dīvs, along with attention to decorative details
and posture, reveal the Qajar logic of visual aest.
Figure 18 presents another example, engraved on the tail of a peacock-shaped vessel,
depicting dīvs surrounding the throne of Prophet Solomon. The dīvs are shown standing or
moving around the royal seat, displaying a combination of human and supernatural traits.
Using the peacock-shaped volume as a background creates a decorative and symbolic space,
highlighting Solomon’s grandeur and his control over supernatural beings.
The dīvs’ attire is generally limited to short skirts, corresponding to the clothing of lower
social classes. However, some dīvs are depicted wearing garments resembling women’s
trousers and dresses. In certain depictions, the dīvs wear tight trousers, with visible lines
along the calves. Women of the period wore a fitted, delicate red garment called Arkhalig,
Fig. 17. Dīvs in the court of Solomon, Qajar-period lacquered binding, papier-mâché, 37 ×
24.5 cm, PNS 383, National Library of Russia. (URL14).
Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)
223
distinguished by a corset-like waist panel (Soltikoff, 2002: 91). Similarly, women sometimes
wore tight trousers with short skirts known as Shaliteh (D’Allemagne, 1956: 291-292).
These tight trousers were likely influenced by Western fashions, as Naser al-Din Shah
specifically commissioned such trousers and short jackets to emulate European trends (Alam
& Dinary, 2019: 87). Other accounts of traditional Iranian trousers correspond to the
depiction of the angelic figure in the scene. D’Allemagne notes that Iranian women, when
venturing outdoors, wore Chaqchour—tapered trousers wide at the thighs and narrow at the
calves (D’Allemagne, 1956: 292).
The composition and choice of clothing for the dīvs exemplify a visual representation of
power and social order in Qajar art. Human-like bodies combined with supernatural traits
not only emphasize Solomon’s dominance over otherworldly beings but also reflect Qajar
artists’ sensitivity to fashion and human form in decorative compositions. This approach
mediates between social reality, traditional visual conventions, and mythological
representations of power, highlighting meticulous attention to clothing details and visual
symbolism.
In Qajar-era art, dīvs were generally depicted as powerful and threatening beings.
However, in depictions of the the royal court (Figures 19 and 20), artists represented dīvs
differently: they are shown standing with their arms crossed, in a passive posture, with their
sense of violence or menace significantly reduced.
From a feminist perspective, this shift may reflect the artist’s attempt to control and
domesticate the “feminine/supernatural force,” since, in the Iranian visual tradition, female-
like beings or human female bodily traits in dīvs implicitly conveyed power and
seductiveness.
The attire of the dīvs is also significant: their short, pleated skirts, resembling women’s
clothing of the period, create a combination of human form and decorative fantasy. From a
gendered perspective, this visual choice may indicate a patriarchal attitude toward power and
control; dīvs that were previously frightening and threatening are now presented in a
Fig. 18. A dīv and an angel in the court of Prophet Solomon, 19th century, No. 00030546001, 80
cm, turquoise, steel, gold, Qazvin, British Museum (URL15).
Nahid Jafari Dehkordi
224
feminine, ornamental, and compliant manner, their role limited to reinforcing royal hierarchy
and displaying masculine authority.
The posture of standing with arms crossed and the pleated, short skirts, while retaining
their monstrous identity, emphasizes controlled power and the social order of the king. In
other words, from a feminist viewpoint, these images not only represent supernatural power
and royal hierarchy but also convey the society’s gendered and patriarchal attitudes toward
the body, gender, and authority through non-human figures.
Figures 21 and 22 are lithographic works from the Qajar period, presenting a dual scene
in which a group of dīvs stands on the right and a group of naked women on the left, both
prepared to serve the royal court in an unidentified land. The identical clothing -short skirts-
worn by both dīvs and women conveys multiple layers of symbolic meaning. This
arrangement evokes Prophet Solomon’s court for Muslim Iranian audiences, where
attendants included humans, animals, and supernatural beings. At the same time, the scene
reflects the hedonistic and pleasure-oriented lifestyle of the Qajar kings, while also illustrating
humanity’s dominion over nature and supernatural entities, portraying dīvs and otherworldly
beings as humble and obedient under human authority.
In these works, women are depicted as street girls with faces resembling European dolls,
whereas the dīvs simultaneously serve as both terrifying symbols of nature and sexualized
servants responding to male desire—the same dīvs that, according to traditional narratives,
served in Prophet Solomon’s court. Unlike earlier depictions, these dīvs are unarmed, with
soft faces, small non-threatening jaws, short feminine skirts, and seductive expressions,
emphasizing their diminished threat and subordination.
Fig. 19. Dīvs at the ceremony of the island kingdom's
grandeur, Qajar era, lithograph (Farhange Razi, 1949:
559).
Fig. 20. Dīvs in the court of Prophet Solomon, Lithograph,
Lithograph. No 695, Arabic Short Stories, 1275 AH, 36.5 ×
22.5 cm, folio .329. Malek National Library and Museum,
Tehran.
Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)
225
Figure 23 provides a clear example of the transformation of dīvs in Qajar art. Here, a
group of dīvs is shown holding maces and arranged in a chorus-like formation. Their body
forms and postures -relaxed, soft, and alluring- convey neither aggression nor readiness for
battle. The maces themselves resemble honey spoons rather than lethal weapons, further
reducing the figures’ threatening presence. Despite this, their ties to Iranian artistic
conventions remain evident, as they wear tonbans and patterned trousers traditionally
associated with Qajar women. Figure 24 complements this example by depicting a group of
female dīvs. Remarkably, these dīvs closely resemble the male dīvs from the previous image,
sharing features such as unusually shaped eyes and animal-like paws instead of human feet.
Comparing the two images highlights the significant blurring of gender distinctions: all the
dīvs possess human bodies with feminine characteristics, and their clothing, body forms, and
postures are almost identical. The only remaining marker of male gender is the presence of
a tail, which serves as the sole indicator in the absence of other distinguishing features.
Description of Dīv Visual Transformations: Pre-Qajar vs. Qajar Periods
The comparative analysis of dīv imagery across Pre-Qajar and Qajar periods reveals
significant transformations in morphology, gender representation, attire, posture, and
symbolic function.
Pre-Qajar Period (Figures 1–9):
In Pre-Qajar art, dīvs were predominantly depicted as male, powerful, and fearsome. Their
bodies were generally bulky and muscular, emphasizing strength and physical dominance.
Facial features were exaggerated and often animalistic or mask-like, with horns, claws, and
occasionally explicitly male genitalia reinforcing their gendered aggression. Postures were
active, combative, or physically challenging, highlighting the confrontation between heroes
and supernatural forces. Attire was minimal or symbolic -armor, armbands, saddles, and
other embellishments- serving both practical and narrative functions. Across various media,
including miniature manuscripts and battle illustrations, the dīv consistently embodied chaos,
Fig. 21. Dīvs with pitchforks, 19th century,
tilework, 26.7 × 26.5 cm No. MAO 1192,
Musée du Louvre (URL16).
Fig. 22. Feminine dīv, 19th century, tilework,
, 26.2 × 27.2 cm MAO 1194, Musée du Louvre
(URL17)
Nahid Jafari Dehkordi
226
danger, and moral challenges, acting as a foil to heroic figures like Rostam and other epic
protagonists.
Qajar Period (Figures 10–22):
By contrast, Qajar-era representations show a marked feminisation and softening of dīvs.
The body form transitioned from bulky to soft, rounded, and more human-like, often
featuring feminine characteristics such as breasts, narrow waists, and plump thighs. Facial
features became gentler, with almond-shaped eyes, arched eyebrows, and stylized
expressions, though remnants of monstrous identity -horns, tails, and animal-like traits- were
retained. Attire shifted to short pleated skirts, jewelry, and garments resembling
contemporary women’s clothing, reflecting both aesthetic preferences and social norms.
Postures became passive or submissive -kneeling, lying, or standing with arms crossed-
signaling reduced aggression and an alignment with human control.
Across media -lithographs, watercolor paintings, tilework, and lacquer- Qajar dīvs were
often hybridized, blending feminine human traits with traditional monstrous elements. In
battle scenes, the contrast between hero and dīv emphasized not only heroic dominance but
also social and cultural discourses around gender, power, and aesthetics. Courtly depictions,
such as those in the context of Solomon or Fath Ali Shah, further highlight the dīv’s role as
a decorative, feminized, and compliant figure, subordinated to human authority while
simultaneously exhibiting visual appeal.
To contextualize these findings within the broader visual transformation, the comparative
data summarized in Table 1: Visual Features of Dīv in Pre-Qajar and Qajar Periods clearly
demonstrates the systematic shift from monstrous, masculine traits to softened, feminized,
and decorative attributes.
Table: Visual Features of Dīv in Pre-Qajar and Qajar Periods
1
Figure
Period
Artwork /
Source
Dīv
Gender
Body Form
Attire
Face
Body
Posture
Medium
1
Pre-
Qajar
Shahnameh,
1435–1440
M
Bulky
Armor
/
orname
nts
Animalistic
Carrying
throne /
struggling
Miniature
2
Pre-
Qajar
Khavarannam
eh, 1476–1477
M
Bulky
Minimal
armor
Terrifying
Fighting
Miniature
3
Pre-
Qajar
Shahnameh
Tahmasbi,
1525
M
Bulky
Minimal
armor
Terrifying
Fighting
Miniature
4
Pre-
Qajar
Shāhnāmeh
1460
M
Bulky /
muscular
Armor
Animalistic
/ Human
Fallen /
defeated
Miniature
5
Pre-
Qajar
Shāhnāmeh,
1500–1515
M
Bulky
Armor
Mask-like /
Horned
Collapsed
Miniature
6
Pre-
Qajar
Shāhnāmeh
1542
M
Bulky
Armor
Animalistic
Fighting /
dynamic
Miniature
7
Pre-
Qajar
Shahnameh
Tahmasbi,
1522
M
Bulky
Armor
Male genital
emphasized
Fighting
Miniature
1
Coding Legend:
Dīv Gender: M = Male, F = Female, H = Hybrid / Ambiguous
Body Form: B = Bulky / muscular, S = Soft / rounded
Face: T = Terrifying, A = Animalistic, F = Feminine
Body Posture: S = Standing, K = Kneeling, L = Lying, M = Fighting
Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)
227
8
Pre-
Qajar
Shahnameh,
1628
M
Bulky
Armor
Male genital
emphasized
Fighting
Miniature
9
Pre-
Qajar
Shahnameh,
1660
M
Bulky
Armor
Animalistic
Throwing
hero
Miniature
10
Qajar
Battle of
Rostam, 1924
H/F
Soft /
rounded
Short
skirt
Feminine
Feminine
Lithograph
11
Qajar
Folk hero vs
Dīv, Qajar
F
Soft /
rounded
Short
skirt
Feminine
Feminine
Lithograph
12
Qajar
Battle of
Rostam and
White Dīv,
Qajar
F
Soft /
rounded
Short
skirt
Feminine
Feminine
Miniature
13
Qajar
Rostam and
Akvān Dīv,
1800–1850
F
Soft /
rounded
Short
skirt
Feminine
Feminine
Miniature
14
Qajar
Battle of
Rostam and
White Dīv,
Afifabad
F
Soft /
rounded
Short
skirt
Feminine
Feminine
Tile
15
Qajar
Fath Ali Shah
vs Dīv
F
Soft /
rounded
Pleated
skirt,
jewelry
Feminine
Standing
Lacquer
16
Qajar
Fath Ali Shah
vs Dīv
F
Soft /
rounded
Pleated
skirt,
jewelry
Feminine
Standing
Lacquer
17
Qajar
Court of
Solomon
F
Soft /
rounded
Pleated
skirt,
jewelry
Feminine
Standing /
submissive
Lacquer
18
Qajar
Court of
Solomon
F
Soft /
rounded
Short
skirt
Feminine
Standing
Metal /
vessel
19
Qajar
King of the
Island
F
Soft /
rounded
Skirt
Feminine
Standing
Lithograph
20
Qajar
Court of
Solomon
F
Soft /
rounded
Skirt
Feminine
Standing
Lithograph
21
Qajar
Group of dīvs
holding maces
F
Soft, alluring,
human-like
Short
skirt,
tonban
Standing,
chorus-like
arrangement
Soft, human-
like, feminine
curves
Lithograph
22
Qajar
Group of
female dīvs
F
Human,
feminine,
resembling
male dīvs
Short
skirt
Standing
Human,
feminine,
closely
resembling
male dīvs
Lithograph
Conclusion
This study, by examining the visual metamorphosis of the dīv in Qajar art, demonstrates
that this mythical being -long regarded in ancient Iranian traditions as a manifestation of evil
forces, chaos, and the perils of nature- underwent a significant transformation in the Qajar
period. The dīv was gradually reimagined as a softened, less threatening, and even feminized
figure. This shift is not merely a visual alteration but a reflection of profound cultural, gender-
related, and epistemic changes in nineteenth-century Iran.
A comparative analysis between pre-Qajar images and Qajar artworks reveals that earlier
dīvs were typically depicted with aggressive features: muscular bodies, monstrous faces,
animalistic manes and tails, and overt associations with masculinity. In the Qajar era,
Nahid Jafari Dehkordi
228
however, artists increasingly abandoned such traits and instead rendered the dīv with softer
bodies, delicate facial features, rounded and feminine forms, passive gestures, and sometimes
garments resembling women’s clothing or corpulent, harmless physiques. These changes
mark the dīv’s departure from its traditional role as a terrifying force and its transformation
into a decorative, domesticated, and occasionally humorous motif.
This process can be analyzed on three levels:
Transformation of the Concept of Nature
With the spread of new technologies, the rise of hunting with firearms, and the influence
of Western scientific thought, nature gradually became “de-sacralized” and more controllable
in the Qajar worldview. The dīv -the symbolic embodiment of nature’s dangers- likewise
descended from its sacred-mythical status and was reduced to a harmless and feminized
figure. This indicates a broader “demythologization” of natural forces.
Representation of Gender and the Body
The visual association between “dīv” and “woman” in Qajar art -where dīvs acquire
feminine and delicate qualities- mirrors the social discourse of the period. While real women
in Qajar society faced significant social restrictions, the female body in the artistic sphere was
reproduced as a signifier of beauty, softness, and passivity. The feminization of the dīv is an
extension of this discourse: a being once defined by violence and danger becomes gentle,
decorative, and marked by feminine traits.
Secularization of the Image of Evil
In earlier narratives, the dīv embodied absolute evil and acted as an anti-heroic force. With
the decline of sacred beliefs regarding supernatural beings, however, the dīv became a purely
aesthetic subject. This shift reflects a wider trend of secularization in Qajar art, whereby
religious and mythological concepts were reinterpreted as worldly, emotional, and
ornamental images.
Drawing on analyses of manuscripts, lithographs, tiles, and lacquer paintings, it becomes
clear that the softening, desacralization, and feminization of the dīv were not isolated
developments but rather the cumulative result of concurrent cultural, gendered, and
intellectual transformations in Qajar society. In this period, the dīv becomes a “historical
body” upon which new attitudes toward nature, corporeality, gender, and power are
inscribed.
Ultimately, the transformation of the dīv in Qajar imagery should be regarded as one of
the most striking examples of semantic change in Iranian art: a mythical creature -once the
embodiment of fear and chaos- re-emerges as a sign of femininity, ornamentation, and the
worldly redefinition of evil.
Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)
229
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