Ucoarte. Revista de Teoría e Historia del Arte, 14, 2025, pp. 206-230, ISSN: 2255-1905

FEMINISING THE DEMON: DĪV ICONOGRAPHY,

GENDER, AND SECULARISING DISCOURSES IN

QAJAR VISUAL CULTURE (C. 1789–1925)

NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI

Handicrafts Department, Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences,

Shahrekord University (Iran)

Fecha de recepción: 30/09/2024

Fecha de aceptación: 13/11/2025

Abstract

This study examines the feminisation of dīv figures in Qajar visual culture (c. 1789 –

1925) and its relation to gendered representations and secularising discourses.

Historically, dīvs were perceived as fearsome supernatural beings symbolising the

dangers of nature, while women were depicted according to ideals of beauty and

passivity. The central research question is: Which visual features of dīvs changed from

the pre-Qajar to the Qajar period, and how are these changes reflected across different

media and audiences? The aim is to explore how these visual transformations mirror

broader social and gender dynamics and to analyse the relationship between dīv

iconography and the evolving role of women in society. The study employs a

comparative visual analysis and case study methodology. A corpus of manuscript

illustrations, tiles, lacquer works, and Qajar prints was selected, and the visual features

of dīvs (form, attire, posture, and behaviour) were coded using a systematic analytical

framework. This approach allows for the identification of feminisation patterns in dīvs

and their connection to the demythologisation of nature and the secularisation of

women’s social roles. The findings indicate that dīvs, as embodiments of the dangers of

nature, and women, as symbols of beauty and tenderness, became fused in the Qajar

period, resulting in dīvs assuming gentler and distinctly feminine forms. These visual

transformations reflect broader cultural shifts and the interplay between iconography,

gender, and social change.

Keywords

Qajar, Dīv, Gender, Iconography, Feminisation, Visual Culture

Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)

FEMINIZAR AL DEMONIO: ICONOGRAFÍA DEL DĪV, GÉNERO Y

DISCURSOS SECULARIZADORES EN LA CULTURA VISUAL KAYAR

(C. 1789–1925)

Resumen

Este estudio examina la feminización de las figuras dīv en la cultura visual kayar (c.

1789–1925) y su relación con las representaciones de género y los discursos

secularizadores. Históricamente, los dīvs eran percibidos como seres sobrenaturales

temibles que simbolizaban los peligros de la naturaleza, mientras que las mujeres eran

representadas según ideales de belleza y pasividad. La pregunta central de la

investigación es: ¿Qué rasgos visuales de los dīvs cambiaron del período pre-kayar al

kayar y cómo se reflejan estos cambios en distintos medios y audiencias? El objetivo

es explorar de qué manera estas transformaciones visuales reflejan dinámicas sociales

y de género más amplias, así como examinar la relación entre la iconografía del dīv y

el papel cambiante de las mujeres en la sociedad.

El estudio emplea un análisis visual comparativo y una metodología de estudio de

caso. Se seleccionó un corpus de ilustraciones manuscritas, azulejos, obras lacadas y

estampas kayar, y se codificaron los rasgos visuales de los dīvs (morfología,

indumentaria, postura y comportamiento) mediante un marco analítico sistemático.

Este enfoque permite identificar patrones de feminización en los dīvs y su conexión

con la desmitologización de la naturaleza y la secularización de los roles sociales de las

mujeres. Los resultados indican que, durante el período kayar, los dīvs -tradicionalmente

asociados con los peligros de la naturaleza- y las mujeres -símbolos de belleza y

ternura- se fusionaron visualmente, dando lugar a dīvs con rasgos más suaves y

marcadamente femeninos. Estas transformaciones iconográficas que surgen, fruto de

la interacción entre imagen, género y diversas transformaciones sociales, se convierten

en el reflejo de unos cambios culturales de gran relevancia.

Palabras clave

Qajar, Dīv, Gender, Iconografía, Feminización, Cultura visual

Nahid Jafari Dehkordi

208

Introduction

The figure of the dīv is one of the most enduring motifs in the visual traditions of Iran.

From ancient Iranian mythology to epic narratives, religious imagery, and the applied arts,

the dīv has consistently functioned as a symbolic marker of evil, chaos, the boundaries of

human identity, and the moral order of society. Yet in the Qajar period (1789-1925), this

motif underwent profound transformations. These changes were not limited to visual form;

they reshaped the semantic and cultural functions of the dīv. In various media -including

architectural tiles, lacquer paintings, lithographs, and manuscript illustrations- the dīv was

not only reimagined but was frequently “softened,” “beautified,” or even “feminised,” a

phenomenon that appears paradoxical when viewed against its long-standing role as an

embodiment of disorder and monstrosity.

This visual and conceptual shift raises a fundamental question: why did the dīv in the

Qajar era evolve from a fierce and threatening creature into a figure with softer, beautified,

and sometimes gender-ambiguous features? Investigating this question provides insight into

the mechanisms of representation in Qajar visual culture and enables us to trace the interplay

between image, power, gender, and aesthetic discourse in this period. In this sense, the dīv

serves as a mediating motif through which the tensions between tradition and modernity,

religious morality and courtly aesthetics, and the redefinition of the body in Qajar art can be

examined.

Despite the significance of this topic, previous scholarship has focused primarily on the

role of the dīv in mythological and epic traditions, paying far less attention to the

transformation of this figure within the dīverse visual media of the Qajar era. Moreover, the

relationship between gender codes, the aesthetics of the body, and the representation of evil

in Qajar imagery has remained largely unexplored. Seeking to address this gap, the present

study examines the visual transformation of the dīv in Qajar art and analyses the gendered

and bodily signifiers embedded in these representations.

Accordingly, this article addresses three central research questions:

1. How does the motif of the dīv change in appearance, posture, bodily form, and

symbolic attributes across Qajar artworks?

2. How do these transformations manifest differently across media, tiles, lithographs,

lacquer objects, and manuscript paintings?

3. In what ways does the “softening” and feminisation of the dīv reflect broader

discourses of gender, the body, and aesthetics in Qajar culture?

The study hypothesises that the transformation of the dīv in Qajar art was not merely

decorative or imitative, but a visual response to shifting socio-cultural dynamics and

emerging discourses on the body, gender, and the representation of power. In this context,

features such as a beautified face, softened physique, feminine contours, and gentle gestures

may be interpreted as signs of demythologisation and the secularisation of the embodiment

of evil.

Methodologically, the study adopts an interdisciplinary approach that integrates visual

analysis with anthropological theories of art, gender studies, and iconographic/iconological

methods. The article proceeds by outlining the conceptual framework and defining key

terms, followed by a review of relevant scholarship and a detailed explanation of the corpus

and coding methodology. The analytical section presents a comparative study of images

across four artistic media, supplemented by three focused case studies that demonstrate

Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)

209

specific patterns of gendered transformation. The article concludes with a discussion of the

cultural implications of these findings within the broader context of Qajar visuality.

Research Methodology

This study is based on a comparative visual analysis and case study approach. Its aim is to

examine the transformation of dīvs and their feminization in Qajar-era visual culture, and to

explore the relationship between these representations and social and gender changes. A

selected corpus of works -including manuscripts, tilework, lacquerware, and Qajar prints-

was analyzed.

The visual features of dīvs (form, posture, attire, and behavior) were systematically coded

using an analytical framework to identify patterns of gendered transformation and

feminization. This approach allows for an examination of the relationship between visual

representations, cultural and social transformations, and the changing roles of women in

society. A comparative analysis of these works across different periods further clarifies the

process of demythologizing nature and the secularization of women’s roles.

The Relationship of Dīvs, Women, and Gender in Qajar Art and Illustration

The Qajar period marked the final stage of Iranians’ struggle with nature. Artists of the

era found depictions of hunting grounds a suitable platform for artistic expression. Human

triumph over nature reduced the mythical elements associated with hunting and dīvs, leading

to a rational and critical representation of nature (Garrard A, 2012). Nature, once considered

sacred in the rituals of Mithra, Zoroastrianism, and Islam, gradually lost its mystique, while

modern science, through accurate maps and records, enabled the utilization of natural

resources. Consequently, sites previously endowed with mythic fame, such as valleys, caves,

and wells -once believed to house supernatural beings like dīvs and jinns- lost much of their

aura and no longer captivated the imagination.

Qajar society was intensely religious. However, some intellectuals, influenced by Western

scholarship and scientific approaches to nature, gradually desacralized supernatural beings

and approached them with critical reasoning (Eliade, 1997; Ginzburg, 1989). This widespread

belief encouraged human defiance against imaginary supernatural entities. Artists depicted

demonic beings as powerless and devoid of sinister traits, portraying them as passive and

ineffectual.

During the Qajar period, women were confined to restricted spaces, primarily due to

religious beliefs and the influence of centuries-old customs and rituals. Recent studies

indicate that these limitations applied not only to ordinary women but also to elite women,

and Qajar art reflected these conditions (Najmabadi, 2005; Afary, 2009).

The role of women in the representation of dīvs is particularly notable. Dīvs, as symbols

of nature’s dangers, and women, as embodiments of beauty and gentleness, were combined

in Qajar illustrations, with dīvs assuming more feminine and gentle forms. This

transformation demonstrates the demythologization of nature and the secularization of

women’s social roles, aligning with broader social and cultural changes (Garrard A, 2012;

Kirmizis A, 2014).

Comparative studies with European illustrations of the same period reveal that the

feminization of demonic entities in Iran paralleled European representations, both

influenced by cultural and scientific developments (Warner, 1994; Russell, 1981).

Nahid Jafari Dehkordi

210

1. Dīvs as Cultural and Intellectual Symbols

This section explores how natural forces are symbolically represented through dīvs and

traces the historical transformations of these entities.

A) Dīvs in Prehistoric Beliefs

Dīvs were among the first entities sanctified and worshipped by Aryans. The synonymity

of terms referring to dīvs and concepts such as God, day, and light indicates that these beliefs

were present before their dispersion (Beekes, 2010). Supernatural beings, including dīvs,

embodied the frightening and mysterious aspects of nature, whereas women represented its

gentler, fertile, and nurturing qualities.

B) Dīvs in Early Religious Traditions

During the emergence of global religions, sacred beings were often regarded as fearsome

entities capable of causing harm. The separation of negative traits from supreme divine

powers contributed to the development of demonology and the belief in devils (Brandon,

1970). In Iranian culture, dīvs initially appeared as deities, later as malevolent beings defeated

by heroes, and ultimately as peripheral, powerless figures represented in feminine forms.

C) Dīvs in Qajar-Era Art

The Qajar era represented a critical historical phase for Iranian society, confronting

foreign cultural influences, technological backwardness, and outdated lifestyles. As humans

increasingly gained control over nature through technology and firearms, previously feared

dīvs were depicted in artworks as weakened, benign, and feminine (Garrard, 2012; Kirmizis

A, 2014). This reflects the broader intellectual and cultural demythologization of nature.

2. Women, Gender, and the Feminization of Dīvs in Qajar Illustrations

The representation of women in relation to dīvs is particularly notable. Dīvs, as symbols

of nature’s dangers, and women, as embodiments of beauty and gentleness, were fused in

Qajar illustrations, with dīvs adopting more feminine and gentle characteristics. This

transformation reflects the secularization of women’s social roles and mirrors broader

cultural changes (Garrard B, 2012; Kirmizis B, 2014).

Comparative studies with European illustrations of the same period show that the

feminization of demonic entities in Iran paralleled European developments, both influenced

by scientific and cultural transformations (Warner, 1994; Russell, 1981).

Artworks from this period depict once-powerful and frightening entities as passive and

ineffectual, while women’s representations highlight both historical social restrictions and

evolving notions of femininity. These shifts illustrate the interplay between iconography,

gender, and societal change, demonstrating the gradual demythologization of supernatural

beings and the secularization of female roles.

Artistic Depictions of Dīvs in the Pre-Qajar Period

In pre-Qajar artwork, dīvs were portrayed as formidable entities, distinguished primarily

by their human-like forms. Artists frequently rendered them with fearsome faces, animalistic

heads, horns and tails reminiscent of herbivores, and outfitted with armbands, leg bindings,

saddles, and other ornamental elements (see Figures 1-10). Figure 1 the royal court of

Jamshid is depicted; Jamshid sits on a magnificent golden throne, wearing a tall crown and

an exquisite blue robe. He appears calm and dignified in the scene, with several courtiers

standing on either side of him, reflecting the respect, grandeur, and order of his court.

However, the most striking part of the image is the two powerful demons carrying Jamshid’s

Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)

211

throne, each with completely different and exaggerated features: The demon on the left has

a muscular body, an animal -like face with horns, and large, powerful claws- claws that

resemble the talons of birds of prey. Its posture suggests that it is struggling under the weight

of the throne. The demon on the right has a slender body with a thin tail, and its legs, instead

of being human, resemble the hooves of a four-legged animal. These hooves emphasize its

supernatural strength and nature, creating a stark contrast with its semi-human body. The

presence of these two differently-featured demons -one with bird-like claws and the other

with four-legged hooves- not only demonstrates Jamshid’s extraordinary power but also

highlights the marvelous and mythological structure of his world.

Analysis of Pre-Qajar Dīv Imagery in Persian Art

In pre-Qajar Persian art, dīvs were consistently portrayed as powerful and often terrifying

entities, reflecting both the human confrontation with nature and the moral lessons

embedded in epic literature. The exaggerated physical features -such as monstrous faces,

talon-like hands, horns, and tails- emphasized their otherworldly threat while drawing

parallels to the animalistic aspects of human behavior (Garrard B, 2012).

Moreover, the interaction between dīvs and heroes, such as Rostam in the Shahnameh,

symbolically represented the struggle between order and chaos, human courage and nature’s

Fig. 1. Jamshid's throne borne by Dīvs, Shahnameh,

1435–1440 AD, Timurid, Shiraz, No MS_22_1948,

f.11v. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper, 17.5 ×

24.5 cm. Fitzwilliam Museum. (URL1)

Nahid Jafari Dehkordi

212

unpredictability. These confrontations were visually dramatized, with dīvs frequently

depicted wielding weapons, dominating scenes, or physically challenging heroes, which

intensified the narrative tension and moral instruction (see Figures 2-8).

Interestingly, the overt male characteristics of many dīvs, including explicit genital

depiction, suggest a gendered dimension in Persian demonology, linking masculinity to

strength, aggression, and danger. This reflects the cultural tendency to assign human traits,

including social and moral values, to supernatural entities (Beekes, 2010; Russell, 1981).

The detailed accoutrements, such as saddles, armbands, and bindings, further humanized

these beings, creating a hybrid imagery that straddled the natural and the supernatural. This

indicates a sophisticated visual language, where artists were not merely illustrating stories but

encoding ethical, social, and philosophical commentary through iconography (Kirmizis,

2014).

In summary, pre-Qajar dīv illustrations were not only artistic expressions but also tools

for moral and cultural education. They mediated societal values, human-nature relationships,

and gendered perceptions, providing insight into the intellectual and aesthetic priorities of

the time.

Dīvs were sometimes illustrated in painting as wielding a mace, a detail especially

prominent in depictions of battle scenes (see Figures 2 and 3).

Fig. 2. Battle of Imam Ali with Subterranean Dīvs,

Khaarannameh, 1476–1477 AD, Timurid, Shiraz, No.

7075, f.71. Watercolor, 27.5 × 38.3 cm, artist: Farhad.

Golestan Palace Museum.

Fig. 3. Battle of Tahmuras with Dīvs, Shahnameh

Tahmasbi, 1525 AD, No. 1970.301.3, f.23v.

Watercolor, 18.6 × 28.3 cm, artist: Sultan

Muhammad, Tabriz. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

(URL2).

Feminising the Demon: Dīv Iconography, Gender, and Secularising Discourses in Qajar Visual Culture (c. 1789–1925)

213

In Figure 2, from the Khaarannameh manuscript (1476–1477 AD), dīvs are depicted

fighting Imam Ali. These dīvs wield maces and dominate the battle scene with strength and

ferocity. Their depiction not only conveys violence and menace but also highlights the

contrast between human courage and capability and supernatural powers.

In Figure 3, Tahmuras is depicted combating dīvs in a dynamic battle scene. The dīvs are

vividly portrayed with exaggerated, supernatural features, wielding weapons and displaying

ferocity, while Tahmuras, mounted on his horse, confronts them with courage and strategic

prowess. The composition emphasizes the tension between human heroism and chaotic

supernatural forces, a recurring theme in the Shahnameh visual tradition.

The physical anatomy of dīvs mirrored that of heroes; however, dīvs were made to look

more robust and formidable, emphasising the hero's inner struggle against their own negative

and animalistic qualities (Figures 4 to 6).

In Figure 4, the dīv is depicted with an anatomy that closely mirrors that of the hero, yet

it is intentionally exaggerated to appear more powerful, animalistic, and fearsome. The

elongated limbs, pronounced musculature, horns, stark white face, and claw-like hands

transform the figure into a hybrid creature situated between human and beast. Despite being

shown in a fallen and defeated position, the dīv’s body remains visually strong and robust,

emphasizing the formidable nature of the adversary the hero must confront. This visual

strategy -common throughout the Persian miniature tradition- portrays the dīv as physically

comparable to the hero, yet corrupted, chaotic, and set against the natural order.

Such anatomical resemblance underscores that the battle is not merely an external

confrontation but a symbolic encounter with the hero’s own internal forces: the darker,

instinctual, and animalistic aspects of the self. The swirling rocks, darkened environment,

Fig. 4. Rustam Slays the White

Div, Shahnameh, ca. 1460, Shiraz. Ink,

opaque watercolor, and gold leaf on

paper, 26.5 × 18.1 cm, Folio: 28v,

University of Michigan Museum of

Art, No. 1963/1.45. (URL3).

Nahid Jafari Dehkordi

214

and disturbed chromatic field surrounding the dīv further enhance its liminal and destabilized

nature, positioning it between the realm of the natural world and the domain of disorder.

Thus, in Figure 4, the dīv functions not simply as a physical foe but as the embodied

representation of the negative dimensions of the human psyche-elements that must be

subdued for the restoration of balance and moral clarity.

In this illustration (Figure 5), the dīv is once again depicted with a body that closely

parallels the anatomy of the hero -muscular, heavy, and unmistakably human- yet augmented

with animalistic features that push it beyond the realm of humanity and into the domain of

chaos and antinature. The powerful limbs, broad shoulders, aggressive gesture of the hands,

and the mask-like white face, together with the long pointed horns, transform the dīv into a

hybrid being, part human and part beast. This structural resemblance between the hero and

the dīv follows a visual logic well established in Shāhnāmeh illustration: the dīv serves as a

mirror figure, embodying not only an external adversary but also the darker, instinctual, and

uncontrolled forces within the hero himself.

Here, the dīv is shown collapsed within the darkness of a cave, surrounded by jagged

purple-blue rocks rendered with undulating, unnatural outlines. This setting situates the dīv

on the threshold between the natural world and the realm of the subconscious. The deep

blackness of the cave, enveloping and encroaching upon the dīv’s body, symbolizes the

psychological depths the hero must confront. Meanwhile, the sharply contrasting and

anxiety-laden colors of the rocks -from violet to orange- heighten the sense of internal

disturbance and emphasize the dīv’s unstable and chaotic nature.

Fig. 5. Rustam Slays the White Div, Shahnameh,

1500–1515 AD, Supplément Persan 1122, Folio 62v.

Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper, 34.6 × 27

cm. Bibliothèque nationale de France. (URL4).

Fig. 6. Rustam Slays the White Div, Shāhnāmeh, 1542

AD, ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper, Folio

67v , Ryl Pers 932, 20.6 × 10.8 cm. Shiraz, The John

Rylands Library, University of Manchester (URL5).