Integrating Neuroscience into CLIL for Early Primary Learners: Stimulating the Corpus Callosum to Support Learning
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Recent advances in neuroscience are offering new ways to understand how children learn languages and how teaching can become more inclusive within Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) contexts. As bilingual education expands across Europe, addressing the diverse needs of neurodivergent learners has become increasingly essential. Research on brain development shows that neuroplasticity, executive functions (EFs), and interhemispheric communication, particularly through the corpus callosum (CC), play a central role in the growth of attention, self-regulation, and language during early childhood. When these processes develop atypically, as in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), children may encounter additional challenges in communication and participation. Embedding rhythmic, movement-based, and multisensory experiences into bilingual classrooms can enhance readiness to learn and promote engagement for all pupils. Building on these insights, the Bilateral Integration Programme designed in this work provides a year-long sequence of short, daily cross-lateral warm-ups that stimulate interhemispheric coordination and strengthen EFs. Rooted in neuroscience and aligned with European and Spanish educational frameworks, the programme offers a practical, inclusive model for supporting learning, attention, and wellbeing in early bilingual education.
Downloads
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
References
Aboitiz, F., Scheibel, A. B., Fisher, R. S., & Zaidel, E. (1992). Fiber composition of the human corpus callosum. Brain Research, 598(1–2), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(92)90178-C.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.
Andreou, M., & Skrimpa, V. (2022). Re-Examining Labels in Neurocognitive Research: Evidence from Bilingualism and Autism as Spectrum-Trait Cases. Brain Sciences, 12, Article 1113. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12081113.
Andreou, M., Tsimpli, I. M., Durrleman, S., & Peristeri, E. (2020). Theory of Mind, Executive Functions, and Syntax in Bilingual Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Languages, 5(4), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages5040067.
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001.
Bloom, J. S., & Hynd, G. W. (2005). The role of the corpus callosum in interhemispheric transfer of information: Excitation or inhibition?. Neuropsychology Review, 15(2), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-005-6252-y.
Boyle, C. M. (2007). An analysis of the efficacy of a motor skills training programme for young people with Moderate Learning Difficulties. International Journal of Special Education, 22(1). https://hdl.handle.net/10871/24631.
Carballo Márquez, A., & Portero Tresserra, M. (2018). Neurociencia y educación: Aportaciones para el aula. Graó
Casas Pedrosa, A. V., & Rascón Moreno, D. (2023). Attention to diversity in bilingual education: student and teacher perspectives in Spain. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 26(9), 1111–1128.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2021.1997902.
Coggins, P. E., Kennedy, T. J., & Armstrong, T. A. (2004). Bilingual corpus callosum variability. Brain and Language, 89(1), 69–75.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093934X03002992.
Costa, A. (2012). El cerebro bilingüe. Editorial Debate.
https://www.academia.edu/45614286/Costa_Albert_El_Cerebro_Bilingue.
Council of the European Union. (2025, August 21). Council recommendation on key competences for lifelong learning. European Commission.
https://education.ec.europa.eu/focus-topics/improving-quality/key-competences
Courchesne, E., Campbell, K., & Solso, S. (2007). Brain growth across the life span in autism: Age-specific changes in anatomical pathology. Brain Research, 1380, 138–145. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899310021670?via%3Dihub
Craig, F., Lamanna, A. L., Margari, F., Matera, E., Simone, M., & Margari, L. (2015). Overlap Between Autism Spectrum Disorders and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Searching for Distinctive/Common Clinical Features. Autism Research. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1449.
Demopoulos, C., Yu, N., Tripp, J., Mota, N., Brandes-Aitken, A. N., Desai, S. S., Hill, S. S., Antovich, A. D., Harris, J., Honma, S., Mizuiri, D., Nagarajan, S. S., & Marco, E. J. (2017). Magnetoencephalographic Imaging of Auditory and Somatosensory Cortical Responses in Children with Autism and Sensory Processing Dysfunction. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 259. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00259.
Dennison, P. E., & Dennison, G. E. (1986). Brain Gym: Simple activities for whole brain learning. Edu-Kinesthetics, Inc.
Di Martino, A., Fair, D. A., Kelly, C., Satterthwaite, T. D., Castellanos, F. X., Thomason, M. E., ... & Milham, M. P. (2013). Unraveling the miswired connectome: A developmental perspective. Neuron, 83(6), 1335–1353.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.08.050.
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750.
Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2019). Review of the evidence on, and fundamental questions about, efforts to improve executive functions, including working memory. In J. M. Novick, M. F. Bunting, M. R. Dougherty, & R. W. Engle (Eds.). Cognitive and working memory training: Perspectives from psychology, neuroscience, and human development (pp. 146–431). Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199974467.003.0008.
Digard, B. G., Durrleman, S., Modyanova, N., Reetzke, R., González-Barrero, A. M., & Libben, G. (2023). Raising bilingual autistic children in the UK: Intersection between neurological and language diversity. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1250199. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1250199.
Education Endowment Foundation & RAND Europe. (2020). Nuffield Early Language Intervention (NELI): Evaluation report.
Eigsti, I.-M., de Marchena, A. B., Schuh, J. M., & Kelley, E. (2011). Language acquisition in autism spectrum disorders: A developmental review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(2), 681–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.09.001.
European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. (2021). Key principles – Supporting policy development and implementation for inclusive education. www.european-agency.org/activities/KeyPrinciples.
European Commission. (2020, September 30). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on achieving the European Education Area by 2025 (COM (2020) 625 final). Publications Office of the European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52020IR4756.
Fair, D. A., Posner, J., Nagel, B. J., Bathula, D., Dias, T. G. C., Mills, K. L., ... & Nigg, J. T. (2012). Atypical default network connectivity in youth with ADHD. Biological Psychiatry, 68(12), 1084–1091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.003.
Felton, A., Vázquez, D., Ramos-Núñez, A. I., Greene, M. R., Macbeth, A., Hernández, A. E., & Chiarello, C. (2017). Bilingualism influences structural indices of interhemispheric organization. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 42, 1–11.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2016.10.004.
Ferré Veciana, J., & Aribau Montón, E. (2008). El desarrollo neurofuncional del niño y sus trastornos (1.ª ed.). Lebón.
Fields, R. D. (2008). White matter in learning, cognition and psychiatric disorders. Trends in Neurosciences, 31(7), 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2008.04.001.
Fields, R. D. (2010). Change in the brain’s white matter. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1199139.
Friederici, A. D. (2011). The brain basis of language processing: From structure to function. Physiological Reviews, 91(4), 1357–1392.
https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00006.2011:contentReference[oaicite:1]{index=1}.
Frazier, T. W., & Hardan, A. Y. (2009). A meta-analysis of the corpus callosum in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 66(10), 935–941.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.07.022.
Friederici, A. D., Brauer, J., & Lohmann, G. (2011). Maturation of the language network: From inter- to interhemispheric connectivities. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(8), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.006.
Gazerani, P. (2025). The neuroplastic brain: current breakthroughs and emerging frontiers. Brain Research, 1858, 149643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2025.149643
Gazzaniga, M. S. (2005). Forty-five years of split-brain research and still going strong. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6(8), 653–659. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1723.
Geurts, H. M., & Embrechts, M. (2008). Language profiles in ASD, SLI, and ADHD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1931–1943.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-008-0587-1.
Giedd, J. N., & Rapoport, J. L. (2010). Structural MRI of Pediatric Brain Development: What Have We Learned and Where Are We Going? Neuron, 67(5), 728–734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.040.
Giraud, A.-L., & Poeppel, D. (2012). Cortical oscillations and speech processing: emerging computational principles and operations. Nature Neuroscience, 15(4), 511–517. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3063.
Glenberg, A. M., & Gallese, V. (2012). Action-based language: A theory of language acquisition, comprehension, and production. Cortex, 48(7), 905–922.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.010.
Goswami, U., & Leong, V. (2013). Speech rhythm and temporal structure: Converging perspectives? Laboratory Phonology, 4(1), 67–92. https://doi.org/10.1515/lp-2013-0004.
Helland, W. A., Biringer, E., Helland, T., & Heimann, M. (2010). Exploring Language Profiles for Children With ADHD and Children With Asperger Syndrome. Journal of Attention Disorders, 16(1), 34-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054710378233.
Hensch, T. K. (2005). Critical period plasticity in local cortical circuits. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6(11), 877–888. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1787.
Hofer, S., & Frahm, J. (2006). Topography of the human corpus callosum revisited—Comprehensive fiber tractography using diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroimage, 32(3), 989–994.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.05.044.
Holmes, J., Adams, J. W., & Hamilton, C. (2014). Children with low working memory and children with ADHD: same or different? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, Article 976. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00976.
Howard, K. B., Katsos, N., & Gibson, J. L. (2019). The school experiences of bilingual children on the autism spectrum: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 87, 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.01.008.
Hulme, C., West, G., Ríos Díaz, M., Hearne, S., Korell, C., Duta, M., & Snowling, M. J. (2025). The Nuffield Early Language Intervention (NELI) programme is associated with lasting improvements in children’s language and reading skills. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 0(0), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.14157.
Jensen, E. (1998). Teaching with the brain in mind. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1991). Critical period effects on universal properties of language: The status of subjacency in the acquisition of a second language. Cognition, 39(3), 215–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(91)90054-8.
Justus, S. A., Pogue, E. M., & Simanovich, V. (2025). Pre-K–12 Teachers’ Views on ASD+ADHD: Prevalence Estimates and Teaching Preparedness. Children, 12, 342. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12030342.
Kana, R. K., Keller, T. A., Minshew, N. J., & Just, M. A. (2014). Inhibitory control in high-functioning autism: Decreased activation and underconnectivity in inhibition networks. Biological Psychiatry, 62(3), 198–206.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.004.
Kennedy, T. J. (2006). Language learning and its impact on the brain: Connecting language learning with the mind through content-based instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 39(3), 471–486.
Köder, F., Dijk, M. L., & Kootstra, G. J. (2022). The effects of bilingualism on cognition and behaviour in individuals with attention deficits: A scoping review. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1057501. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1057501.
Korrel, H., Mueller, K. L., Silk, T., Anderson, V., & Sciberras, E. (2017). Language problems in children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder – a systematic meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(6), 640–654. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12688.
Kuhl, P. K. (2010). Brain mechanisms in early language acquisition. Neuron, 67(5), 713–727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.038.
Kuhl, P. K. (2011). Early language learning and literacy: Neuroscience implications for education. Mind, Brain, and Education, 5(3), 128–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-228X.2011.01121.x.
Le Cunff, A.-L., Dommett, E., & Giampietro, V. (2024). Neurophysiological measures and correlates of cognitive load in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and dyslexia: A scoping review and research recommendations. European Journal of Neuroscience, 59(2), 256–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.16201.
Lebel, C., & Deoni, S. (2018). The development of brain white matter microstructure. NeuroImage, 182, 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.12.097.
Lenroot, R. K., & Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: Insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(6), 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.001.
Luk, G., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Grady, C. L. (2011). Lifelong bilingualism maintains white matter integrity in older adults. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(46), 16808–16813. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4563-11.2011.
Lukito, S., Norman, L., Carlisi, C., Radua, J., Hart, H., Simonoff, E., & Rubia, K. (2020). Comparative meta-analyses of brain structural and functional abnormalities during cognitive control in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Psychological Medicine, 50(6), 894–919.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720000574.
Macedonia, M. (2019). Embodied learning: Why at school the mind needs the body. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2098. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02098.
Mackey, A. P., Whitaker, K. J., & Bunge, S. A. (2012). Experience-dependent plasticity in white matter microstructure: reasoning training alters structural connectivity. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 6, Article 32. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2012.00032.
Madrid, D., & Pérez Cañado, M. L. (2018). Addressing diversity in CLIL: Current approaches and practices. Latin American Journal of Content and Language Integrated Learning, 11(1), 9–32. https://doi.org/10.5294/laclil.2018.11.1.1.
Madrid, D., & Pérez Cañado, M. L. (2018). Innovations and challenges in attending to diversity through CLIL. Theory Into Practice, 57(3), 241–249.
Mathias, B. (2023). Corpus callosum. SpeechFit Glossary.
https://speechfit.io/glossary/c/corpus-callosum.
Miguel Pérez, V. (n.d.). Hitos del neurodesarrollo en educación infantil (Milestones of neurodevelopment in early childhood education). Unpublished document.
Miguel Pérez, V (n.d.). Metodología en Educación Infantil y Aportaciones de la Neurociencia. Unpublished document.
Mohades, S. G., Struys, E., Van Schuerbeek, P., Mondt, K., Van De Craen, P., & Luypaert, R. (2012). DTI reveals structural differences in white matter tracts between bilingual and monolingual children. Brain Research, 1435, 72–80.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2011.12.005.
Mostofsky, S. H., Burgess, M. P., & Gidley Larson, J. C. (2009). Increased motor cortex white matter volume predicts motor impairment in autism. Brain, 132(Pt 5), 1197–1209. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awm129.
Negin, E., Farahani, S., Jalaie, S., Barootian, S. S., Pourjavid, A., Eatemadi, M., Kazemiha, M., & Barzegar, M. (2016). Effect of bilingualism on volume of corpus callosum. International Journal of Paediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 88, 103–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2016.06.054.
Nkurunziza, S. (2024). The role of phonological awareness in early reading development. European Journal of Linguistics, 3(3), 15-26. www.carijournals.org.
Norbury, C. F., & Sparks, A. (2013). Difference or disorder? Cultural issues in understanding neurodevelopmental disorders. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027446.
Nordahl, C. W., et al. (2015). Sex differences in the corpus callosum in preschool-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Molecular Autism, 6(26).
https://molecularautism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13229-015-0005-4.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019). OECD Learning Compass 2030: A series of concept notes. OECD Publishing.
https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/learning/learning-compass-2030/.
Paul, L. K., Brown, W. S., Adolphs, R., Tyszka, J. M., Richards, L. J., Mukherjee, P., & Sherr, E. H. (2007). Agenesis of the corpus callosum: Genetic, developmental, and functional aspects of connectivity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8(4), 287–299. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17375041/.
Petitto, L. A., Berens, M. S., Kovelman, I., Dubins, M. H., Jasinska, K., & Shalinsky, M. H. (2012). The “Perceptual Wedge Hypothesis” as the basis for bilingual babies’ phonetic processing advantage: New insights from fNIRS brain imaging. Brain and Language, 121(2), 130–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2011.05.003.
Pliatsikas, C. (2020). Understanding structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: The dynamic restructuring model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(3), 459–471. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000130:contentReference[oaicite:5]{index=5}.
Pliatsikas, C., Meteyard, L., Veríssimo, J., DeLuca, V., Shattuck, K., & Ullman, M. T. (2020). The effect of bilingualism on brain development from early childhood to young adulthood. Brain Structure and Function, 225(7), 2131–2152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-020-02115-5.
Pulvermüller, F., & Fadiga, L. (2010). Active perception: Sensorimotor circuits as a cortical basis for language. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(5), 351–360. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2811.
Pulvermüller, F. (2013). How neurons make meaning: Brain mechanisms for embodied and abstract-symbolic semantics. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(9), 458–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.06.004.
Reindal, L., Nærland, T., Weidle, B., Lydersen, S., Andreassen, O. A., & Sund, A. M. (2023). Structural and pragmatic language impairments in children evaluated for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53, 701–719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04853-1.
Schirmer, A., & Kotz, S. A. (2006). Beyond the right hemisphere: Brain mechanisms mediating vocal emotional processing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(1), 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.11.009.
Segura, M. (2023). CLIL in Pre-Primary Education: The Views of In-Service and Pre-Service Teachers. Bellaterra Journal of Teaching & Learning Language & Literature, 16(2), e1230. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/jtl3.1230.
Seidman, L. J., Valera, E. M., & Makris, N. (2005). Structural brain imaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1263–1272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.023.
Shams, L., & Seitz, A. R. (2008). Benefits of multisensory learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(11), 411–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.07.006.
Shaw, P., Stringaris, A., Nigg, J., & Leibenluft, E. (2014). Emotion dysregulation in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 276–293. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13070966.
Simply Psychology. (2023). Critical period in brain development and childhood learning. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/critical-period.html.
Sorge, G. B., Toplak, M. E., & Bialystok, E. (2017). Interactions between levels of attention ability and levels of bilingualism in children’s executive functioning. Developmental Science, 20, Article e12408. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12408.
Thapar, A., Cooper, M., Eyre, O., & Langley, K. (2013). What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02611.x.
Thapar, A., Cooper, M., & Rutter, M. (2017). Neurodevelopmental disorders. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(4), 339–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30376-5.
Thomas, M. S. C., & Johnson, M. H. (2008). New advances in understanding sensitive periods in brain development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(1), 1–5. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00537.x.
Travers, B. G., Adluru, N., Ennis, C., Tromp do, P. M., Destiche, D., Doran, S., ... & Alexander, A. L. (2015). Diffusion tensor imaging in autism spectrum disorder: A review. Autism Research, 8(3), 386–392. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1476.
Uddin, L. Q., Supekar, K., & Menon, V. (2013). Reconceptualizing functional brain connectivity in autism from a developmental perspective. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 458. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00458.
Uddin, L. Q., Dajani, D. R., Voorhies, W., Bednarz, H., & Kana, R. K. (2017). Progress and roadblocks in the search for brain-based biomarkers of autism and ADHD. Translational Psychiatry, 7(8), e1218. https://doi.orfg/10.1038/tp.2017.164.
Uljarević, M., Evans, D. W., & Alvares, G.A., Whitehouse, A. J. O. (2016). Short report: relationship between restricted and repetitive behaviours in children with autism spectrum disorder and their parents. Molecular Autism, 7, 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-016-0091-y.
Vaidya, C. J., & Stollstorff, M. (2008). Cognitive neuroscience of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Current status and working hypotheses. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 14(4), 261–267. https://doi.org/10.1002/ddrr.40.
Van der Knaap, L. J., & Van der Ham, I. J. M. (2011). How does the corpus callosum mediate interhemispheric transfer? A review. Behavioural Brain Research, 223(1), 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2011.04.018.
Wei, X., Gunter, T. C., Adamson, H., McWhinney, B. C., Pliatsikas, C., & Anwander, A. (2024). White matter plasticity during second language learning within and across hemispheres. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 121(2), e2306286121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2306286121.
Werker, J. F., & Hensch, T. K. (2015). Critical periods in speech perception: New directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 173–196. https://acesin.letras.ufrj.br/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/critical_period.pdf.
Wu, Z.-M., Wang, P., Liu, X.-C., Zhou, Q.-C., Cao, X.-L., Sun, L., Liu, L., Cao, Q.-J., Yang, L., Wang, Y.-F., Qian, Y., & Yang, B.-R. (2025). Functional and structural connectivity of the subregions of the amygdala in ADHD children with or without ODD. BMC Psychiatry, 25(74). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06500-4.
Yoro, A. J., Fourie, J. V., & Van der Merwe, M. (2020). Learning support strategies for learners with neurodevelopmental disorders: Perspectives of recently qualified teachers. African Journal of Disability, 9(0), a561. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v9i0.561.
Zelazo, P. D., Blair, C. B., & Willoughby, M. T. (2016). Executive function: Implications for education (NCER 2017-2000). National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
https://ies.ed.gov/ncer/pubs/20172000/.
Zhang, Y., Qin, B., Wang, L., Zhang, K., Song, C., Chen, J., Cai, J., & Li, T. (2022). Corpus callosum volumes in children with autism spectrum disorders: Sex- associated differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(6), 2421–2429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05538-7.