The Executive Functions As Predictors of the Academic Performance of College Students
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Abstract
In this paper, we study the relationship between Executive Functions (EF) and academic performance, analyzing by means of EF cognitive measures if working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and categorization predict the general academic achievement of college students. A non-experimental cross-sectional study was conducted involving 104 college, who were evaluated using the Modified Wisconsisn Card Sorting Test (M-WCST), the Stroop color and word test, and working memory index from Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale WAIS-III; and the cumulative grade point average for the last academic period was recorded. A multiple hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to evaluate whether EFs contribute significantly to overall academic achievement, and the performance of EF tasks among students with low and average academic performance was compared. The results showed that the verbal working memory, cognitive flexibility and the abstraction and concept formation predict the general academic performance of college students, although they manage to explain 19,8% of the variance. A statistically significant difference was found with a median effect size between the group with low and average academic performance in the verbal working memory task. It is proposed the need to consider age as a possible mediating variable of the relationship between EF and general academic performance, and to explore other cognitive, behavioral and psychosocial variables that could be influencing in the academic performance of college students.
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Gutiérrez-Ruiz, K., Paternina , J., Zakzuk , S., Mendez , S., Castillo , A., Payares , L., & Peñate , A. (2021). The Executive Functions As Predictors of the Academic Performance of College Students. Psychology, Society & Education, 12(3), 161–174. Retrieved from https://journals.uco.es/psye/article/view/13972
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References
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Barceló, E., Lewis. S. & Moreno, M. (2006). Funciones ejecutivas en estudiantes universitarios que presentan bajo y alto rendimiento académico. Psicología desde el Caribe, (18), 109-138.
Barkley, R. A. (2012). The Barkley deficits in executive functioning scale. New York: Guilford Press.
Blakemore, S. J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 47(3‐4), 296-312.
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García-Molina, A., Enseñat, A., Tirapu-Ustárroz, J., & Roig-Rovira J. (2009). Maduración de la corteza prefrontal y desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas durante los primeros cinco años de vida. Revista de Neurología, 48, 435-440.
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Giedd, J. N., & Rapoport, J. L. (2010). Structural MRI of pediatric brain development: what have we learned and where are we going? Neuron 67, 728–734. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.040
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Golden, C. J. (1999). Stroop: Test de colores y palabras. Madrid: Tea.
Gómez-Pérez, E., Ostrosky-Solís, F., & Próspero-García, O. (2003). The development of attention, memory and the inhibitory processes: The chronological relation with the maturation of brain structure and functioning. Revista de Neurología 37(6), 561-567
Heaton, R.K., Chelune, G.J., Talley, J.L., Kay, G.G., & Gurtiss, G. (1993). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Manual. Odessa. FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Iniesta, A.V., López-López, J.A., Corbí, R.G., Pérez, P.M., & Costa, J.L.C. (2017). Differences in cognitive, motivational and contextual variables between under-achieving, normally-achieving, and over-achieving students: A mixed-effects analysis. Psicothema 29(4), 533-538
Knouse, L., Feldman, G. & Blevins, E. (2014). Executive functioning difficulties as predictors of academic performance: Examining the role of grade goals. Learning and Individual Differences, 36, 19-26.
McKee, J. (2017). Executive Functions and Resilience in First-Year Undergraduate Students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Calgary).
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.
Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140.
Oyefiade, A. A., Ameis, S., Lerch, J. P., Rockel, C., Szulc, K. U., Scantlebury, N., ... & Mabbott, D. J. (2018). Development of short‐range white matter in healthy children and adolescents. Human brain mapping, 39(1), 204-217.
Prosen, S. & Smrtnik Vitulić, H. (2014). Executive function in different groups of university students. Review of psychology, 21(2), 0-143.
Ramírez, F. M. J., & Ostrosky, F. (2012). Flexibilidad cognitiva después de un traumatismo craneoencefálico. Acta de investigación psicológica, 2(1), 582-591.
Ramos, C., Jadán-Guerrero, J., & Gómez-García, A. (2018). Relación entre el rendimiento académico y el autorreporte del funcionamiento ejecutivo de adolescentes ecuatorianos. Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana, 36(2), 405-417.
Reyes, S., Barreyro, J. & Injoque-Ricle, I. (2015). El rol de la función ejecutiva en el rendimiento académico en niños de 9 años. Revista Neuropsicología Latinoamericana, 7(2), 42-72
Rose, D. & Rose, K. (2007). Deficits in Executive Function Processes: A Curriculum-based Intervention. In Lynn Meltzer (Ed.). Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice. New York: Guilford Publications.
Samuels, W., Tournaki, N., Blackman, S. & Zilinski, C. (2016). Executive functioning predicts academic achievement in middle school: A four-year longitudinal study. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(5), 478-490.
Santa-Cruz, C., & Rosas, R. (2017). Mapping of Executive Functions/Cartografía de las Funciones Ejecutivas. Estudios de Psicología, 38(2), 284-310.
Simone, A. N., Marks, D. J., Bédard, A. C., & Halperin, J. M. (2018). Low working memory rather than ADHD symptoms predicts poor academic achievement in school-aged children. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 46(2), 277-290.
Van der Ven, S. H., Kroesbergen, E. H., Boom, J., & Leseman, P. P. (2012). The development of executive functions and early mathematics: A dynamic relationship. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 100-119.
Visu-Petra, L., Cheie, L., Benga, O., & Miclea, M. (2011). Cognitive control goes to school: The impact of executive functions on academic performance. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 11, 240-244.
Wechsler, D. (2001). WAIS-III. Escala de Inteligencia de Wechsler para Adultos. Madrid: TEA Ediciones.
Asikainen, H., Hailikari, T., & Mattsson, M. (2018). The interplay between academic emotions, psychological flexibility and self-regulation as predictors of academic achievement. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 42(4), 439-453.
Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section C, Child Neuropsychology, 8 (2), 71–82
Baars, M. A., Nije Bijvank, M., Tonnaer, G. H., & Jolles, J. (2015). Self-report measures of executive functioning are a determinant of academic performance in first-year students at a university of applied sciences. Frontiers in psychology, 6, 1131.
Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255(5044), 556-559.
Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory. Trends in cognitive sciences, 4(11), 417-423.
Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual review of psychology, 63, 1-29.
Barceló, E., Lewis. S. & Moreno, M. (2006). Funciones ejecutivas en estudiantes universitarios que presentan bajo y alto rendimiento académico. Psicología desde el Caribe, (18), 109-138.
Barkley, R. A. (2012). The Barkley deficits in executive functioning scale. New York: Guilford Press.
Blakemore, S. J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 47(3‐4), 296-312.
Casey, B. J., Getz, S., & Galvan, A. (2008). The adolescent brain. Developmental. Review. 28, 62–77. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.003
Cerda, G., Pérez, C., Romera, E.M., Casas, J.A., & Ortega-Ruiz, R. (2017). Influence of cognitive and motivational variables in academic mathematics performance in chilean students. Educacion XX1 20(2), pp. 365-385
Espy, K., McDiarmid, M., Cwik, M., Stalets, M., Hamby, A. & Senn, T. (2004). The contribution of executive functions to emergent mathematics skills in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 465-486
García-Molina, A., Enseñat, A., Tirapu-Ustárroz, J., & Roig-Rovira J. (2009). Maduración de la corteza prefrontal y desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas durante los primeros cinco años de vida. Revista de Neurología, 48, 435-440.
Gathercole, S., & Alloway, T. P. (2008). Working memory and learning: A practical guide for teachers. Sage.
Giedd, J. N., & Rapoport, J. L. (2010). Structural MRI of pediatric brain development: what have we learned and where are we going? Neuron 67, 728–734. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.040
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J.N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K.M., Greenstein, D., … & Thompson, P.M. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 8174–8179.
Golden, C. J. (1999). Stroop: Test de colores y palabras. Madrid: Tea.
Gómez-Pérez, E., Ostrosky-Solís, F., & Próspero-García, O. (2003). The development of attention, memory and the inhibitory processes: The chronological relation with the maturation of brain structure and functioning. Revista de Neurología 37(6), 561-567
Heaton, R.K., Chelune, G.J., Talley, J.L., Kay, G.G., & Gurtiss, G. (1993). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Manual. Odessa. FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Iniesta, A.V., López-López, J.A., Corbí, R.G., Pérez, P.M., & Costa, J.L.C. (2017). Differences in cognitive, motivational and contextual variables between under-achieving, normally-achieving, and over-achieving students: A mixed-effects analysis. Psicothema 29(4), 533-538
Knouse, L., Feldman, G. & Blevins, E. (2014). Executive functioning difficulties as predictors of academic performance: Examining the role of grade goals. Learning and Individual Differences, 36, 19-26.
McKee, J. (2017). Executive Functions and Resilience in First-Year Undergraduate Students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Calgary).
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.
Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134-140.
Oyefiade, A. A., Ameis, S., Lerch, J. P., Rockel, C., Szulc, K. U., Scantlebury, N., ... & Mabbott, D. J. (2018). Development of short‐range white matter in healthy children and adolescents. Human brain mapping, 39(1), 204-217.
Prosen, S. & Smrtnik Vitulić, H. (2014). Executive function in different groups of university students. Review of psychology, 21(2), 0-143.
Ramírez, F. M. J., & Ostrosky, F. (2012). Flexibilidad cognitiva después de un traumatismo craneoencefálico. Acta de investigación psicológica, 2(1), 582-591.
Ramos, C., Jadán-Guerrero, J., & Gómez-García, A. (2018). Relación entre el rendimiento académico y el autorreporte del funcionamiento ejecutivo de adolescentes ecuatorianos. Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana, 36(2), 405-417.
Reyes, S., Barreyro, J. & Injoque-Ricle, I. (2015). El rol de la función ejecutiva en el rendimiento académico en niños de 9 años. Revista Neuropsicología Latinoamericana, 7(2), 42-72
Rose, D. & Rose, K. (2007). Deficits in Executive Function Processes: A Curriculum-based Intervention. In Lynn Meltzer (Ed.). Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice. New York: Guilford Publications.
Samuels, W., Tournaki, N., Blackman, S. & Zilinski, C. (2016). Executive functioning predicts academic achievement in middle school: A four-year longitudinal study. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(5), 478-490.
Santa-Cruz, C., & Rosas, R. (2017). Mapping of Executive Functions/Cartografía de las Funciones Ejecutivas. Estudios de Psicología, 38(2), 284-310.
Simone, A. N., Marks, D. J., Bédard, A. C., & Halperin, J. M. (2018). Low working memory rather than ADHD symptoms predicts poor academic achievement in school-aged children. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 46(2), 277-290.
Van der Ven, S. H., Kroesbergen, E. H., Boom, J., & Leseman, P. P. (2012). The development of executive functions and early mathematics: A dynamic relationship. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 100-119.
Visu-Petra, L., Cheie, L., Benga, O., & Miclea, M. (2011). Cognitive control goes to school: The impact of executive functions on academic performance. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 11, 240-244.
Wechsler, D. (2001). WAIS-III. Escala de Inteligencia de Wechsler para Adultos. Madrid: TEA Ediciones.